Down Under

11 Must Have Books on Australia for the Tourist!

2011-12-13T19:40:00.000-08:00

1.Eyewitness Travel Guide to Australia by DK Publishing: As a result of spending a summer in Australia, I own numerous travel guides about the country, and this one is one of the best. If you, like me, need color pictures in your travel guides, then you won't want to miss out on this guide. The photography is extensive and wonderful. The book is divided into multiple sections, each covering a specific region of Australia.

There is a brief overview of each region, and then the book lists multiple attractions in that region, with a brief description of each one. At least half of the attractions listed have photographs, and buildings such as museums and government buildings usually have photographs of the interior and the artwork inside. Each attraction also lists the telephone number, opening and closing hours, and the rail/bus/subway stop that you will need to use. At the beginning of the book, there is a brief history of Australia, and information on traveling around the country, money, food, etc. is at the end.

The book does list some hotels and restaurants, but does not really cater to the budget traveler (buy Let's Go for this). The book also does not have extensive maps, so don't count on finding those in here either. I always buy multiple guides when I travel, so this was not a problem for me, but I can see how it would be for some people. Even though the price is a bit more than some other guides, I would not miss out on buying this book, or any other Eyewitness Guides. I consider them an absolute necessity for travel, and one of the best series out there.

2. Fodor’s Australia 2008 by Fodor’s: This book is not for backpackers. There is no section on hostels and all of Fodor's choices (highest recommendation) are extremely pricey. This includes restaurant recommendations as well.

3. Frommer’s Australia 2011 by Marc Llewellyn: I love Frommers. They don't cover every town, but on the ones that they do cover they do a good job. The narrative is relaxed and colloquial, and they often have tips and off-the-beaten-track suggestions that don't make it into other travel guides. I like their "best of" ratings. I value their budget suggestions, which (the hotels) are sometimes a little classier than Rick Steves (whom I also love). This travel guide for Australia is as good as I expect from Frommers.

4. Insight Guide Australia by Jeffrey Pike: One of the best of guides to Australia. I have a 1998 edition and it is pretty impressive!

5. Let’s Go Australia 9th Edition by Inc. Let’s Go:
I feel that what other guides lack, this makes up for and then some. There is even a "Beyond Tourism" section in each guide that details how to fully appreciate the place you are traveling to through studying, working, and even volunteering. Each writer for the guides is someone who has first hand eyewitness experience with the country in question, so there is little need for interviews, although it certainly wouldn't detract from the guide for some to be included. No matter what type of trip you want to experience, as long as you want to stretch your dollar and have a good time, Let's Go is unlikely to let you down.

6. Lonely Planet Australia by Paul Smitz et al (old editions)/ Backpackers Ultimate Guide (BUG) Australia : Since the late 90's Lonely Planet have been dwindling down the number of destinations and hostel listings in these guides and replacing that space with more five star hotels, fine dining and other useless information backpackers will never use. In this edition Lonely Planet lists the most expensive Hotel in Australia, Palazzo Versace in their Gold Coast accommodation listings. They are so out of touch with their target market now it is not funny.

Buy the Backpackers Ultimate Guide (BUG) Australia instead as it is what Lonely Planet and Lets Go used to be. A comprehensive coverage of all hostels in a destination, not just the one or two that pay to be listed and no weight increasing space taking up useless information that we backpackers do not want to lug around an entire continent.

If you can find an old copy from ten years ago buy it otherwise give Lonely Planet a miss!

7. National Geographic Traveler: Australia by Roff Martin-Smith

8. Cold Beer and Crocodiles: A Bicycle Journey into Australia by Roff Smith: Cold Beer and Crocodiles (crocodiles barely feature at all!) is an excellent travel adventure which will appeal to anyone who cosily enjoys the vicarious experience of someone else battling to survive in an extreme landscape: in this case, the Australian Outback. Having lived in Australia for 15 years without developing any emotional attachment to the country, Roff Smith quit his job at Time magazine to undertake a mammoth 10,000 mile round trip of Australia, his rationale being a desire to try to find the 'real' Australia and 'real' Australians, engage emotionally "with the country I'd lived in as a stranger all these years". His chosen mode of transport, a 21 speed touring bicycle would let him get close to the land, experience Australia, its sights, sounds and smells.

9. In a Sunburned Country by Bill Bryson: This is a terrific read. Bryson has, mercifully, gone well and truly off the beaten track to explore many different parts of Australia - the cities, the outback, the tropics, and everything else in between. But as ever with a Bill Bryson book, more than the destination itself, the pleasure is in getting there. Laugh-out-loud moments abound, though perhaps more in the restrained way of "A Walk in the Woods", as opposed to the guffaw-fest that is "Neither Here Nor There".

You don't have to be at all familiar with Australia to appreciate and enjoy this book.

10.The Songlines by Bruce Chatwin

11. Tracks: A Woman’s Solo Trek Across 1,700 Miles of Australian Outback by Robyn Davidson: This 1980 book by Robyn Davidson, then 30 years old, is now considered a classic. She did it alone, with four camels, a loyal dog, and all the self-doubt and introspection that make her very human.

Handling Money in Australia for the Student

2009-10-01T19:32:00.000-07:00

Australia’s currency is the Australian Dollar (AUD). As of 9/30/09 the exchange rate is 1.14 AUD per U.S. dollar. Past participants have recommended that you exchange money before departure in order to have some cash available upon arrival. They suggest bringing enough cash to last a week’s worth of living expenses. This will include bus, train and taxi fares, payment of temporary accommodation, and meals. Be sure to ask for small bills when exchanging money so you can pay for local transportation without needing too much change.

You can use credit cards in Australia for everything from drawing cash to buying dinner. While Visa and MasterCard are more widely accepted than American Express for purchases, American Express offers its card holders some very useful financial services. For each transaction, you will be assessed the wholesale exchange rate that applies to large foreign currency transactions. You can only draw from a primary (usually checking) account and you should check with the issuer to make sure your numerical PIN number will work abroad. There are some things to consider when using an American ATM card; the first is international transaction fees. Be sure to ask each company about their international transaction fees because these fees can be fairly high. Also, American ATM cards are difficult to replace quickly if lost or stolen so make sure you have other sources of money with you.

One way to handle your money is to open an Australian bank account. You can wire money from your home institution to your account in Australia. The advantages of opening an Australian account are: Australian banks currently do NOT charge a fee for the use of their ATMs, you have easy access to bank employees that can help you if there is a problem with your account or if your card is lost or stolen, and if you chose to work, you can directly deposit your paychecks into your account. Some Australian banks also have special packages for students that make it convenient to open and easy to close an account upon entry and exit of the country. Examples of banks in Australia are Australian New Zealand Bank (www.anz.com), Commonwealth Bank (www.commbank.com.au) and Bank of Queensland (www.boq.com.au). Note: Before you can open an account in Australia, you must have an Australian address and telephone number.

Even with careful planning and strict adherence to a budget, it is very easy to overspend. Finance charges can add up quickly if you extend payments on goods or take out cash advances. Planning a budget and sticking to it can help you avoid overspending.

Wildlife attractions in Australia

2009-08-07T02:38:00.000-07:00

The richness and diversity of Australia's wildlife is something that draws huge numbers of visitors to the continent. Australian wildlife – both flora and fauna – is quite unique because of its isolation from other major land masses, and is famous the world over. After all, who doesn't imagine cuddly koala bears and jumping kangaroos when thinking about Australia?!

However, don't underestimate the sheer enormity of Australia. With over 450 species of mammals alone (and 2,000 species of spiders!), the number of wildlife attractions is vast and can be overwhelming if you're not prepared and organised. A good way to start is by deciding on the kind of wildlife experience you'd like to have – and you've got plenty of options.

Perhaps the most obvious places to go are the various National Parks, which tend to be areas of outstanding natural beauty, and are always popular with tourists. There's no shortage of these parks in Australia; Sturt National Park will give you a real Australian Outback experience (and more lizards than you ever knew existed!); the well-known Kakadu National Park, located in the Northern Territory, is where a third of all Australia's bird species live.

Also along these lines, it's well worth checking out some zoos, aquariums, nature reserves and sanctuaries. There are many different types; some of the best known include the National Aquarium and Australian Wildlife Sanctuary, the ever-popular Melbourne Zoo, and Taronga Zoo, which has a reputation as one of the most innovative and scenic zoos in the world (and where you can see a vast number of reptiles and endangered species, like the Ground Parrot).

Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve (southwest of Canberra) is perfect if you'd like a more “natural” wildlife experience, as it lets you see koalas, kangaroos and so on in a more authentic setting. If this sort of wildlife attraction appeals to you, Australia won't disappoint! The famous Blue Mountains (near Sydney) are home to a breathtaking array of colourful birds and native Australian creatures such as Swamp Wallabies, glow-worms, Eastern Grey Kangaroos and many more than can be listed here. And of course, it would be impossible to mention natural wildlife attractions without including Queensland's lush rainforests, simply swarming with unusual animals like tree-kangaroos, bandicoots, and pademelons.

Queensland, of course, is famous for another amazing wildlife attraction. The Great Barrier Reef's 200km of coral and tropical marine life attracts visitors to Australia all by itself; diving and snorkelling on the reef is generally thought of as one of the most memorable and spectacular wildlife experiences you could have anywhere in the world. Australia's warm waters mean that the sea life, too, is rich and varied – you can see humpback whales at Byron Bay, bottlenose dolphins at Port Stephens, or any number of seals and seabirds on various islands. Perhaps the most well-known islands, incidentally, are Kangaroo Island (with its large populations of sea lions, seals, koalas, and of course, kangaroos) and Phillip Island (just south of Melbourne) with its delightful Penguin Parade every night.

And for a really “natural” wildlife experience, why not consider a Wildlife Trail in somewhere like Adelaide or Tasmania, or a spot of bush walking? The options – like the Australian wildlife itself – are plentiful and varied. Don't visit Australia without planning to take in at least some of this country's spectacular and unique wildlife attractions.

Brief Description of the Australian Immigration System

2009-01-23T01:27:00.000-08:00

How can you enter Australia if you are not a citizen? Whether you wish to enter temporarily or permanently, visitors to Australia must be in possession of an appropriate visa.

There are a variety of visas that can be granted to those wishing to enter Australia and therefore it’s important to know which one is right for you. Visas are categorized by the length and type of stay that you are seeking, but most visitors who are traveling to the country for vacation purposes should consider applying for a Tourist visa. These visas can generally be applied for online and processing time is minimal.

Individuals who are neither Australian citizens nor the holders of valid visas are sometimes referred to as “prohibited non-citizens”, “illegal immigrants” and “illegal aliens.” Today, they are most commonly called unlawful non-citizens.

An individual can become an unlawful non-citizen by entering Australia without a visa or by staying when they no longer possess a valid visa, either because it has expired or been cancelled. Present Australian Government estimates are that there are roughly 46,000 unlawful non-citizens.

A non-citizen in Australia whose visa expires or is canceled can be detained and removed. However, you might also be eligible to apply for a bridge visa which can cover the gap between your expired visa and your new visa. Still, you should be aware that by becoming unlawful your right to apply for or be granted a visa may be limited.

Types of Australian Visas

2009-01-22T01:25:00.000-08:00

There are many different types of visas available to those wishing to seek entrance to Australia. The type of visa that you apply for will depend on your specific needs. In addition to the visas themselves, it’s also possible to apply for a visa extension once your original visa reaches its expiration.
Some of the most common visas include:

• ETA (Visitor) (Subclass 976): Used for short-term visits to Australia of up to 3 months.

• eVisitors (Subclass 651): Used for visits to Australia for tourism or business purposes for up to 3 months. It is available to passport holders from the European Union, and other European countries, who are outside Australia.

• Tourist visa (Subclass 676): A temporary visa permitting a stay in Australia of up to 3 or 6 or 12 months. Applicants can apply from outside and inside Australia.

• Sponsored Family Visitor visa (Subclass 679): For visitors seeking to visit family in Australia for a period of up to 12 months. An Australian citizen or permanent resident must formally sponsor the applicant.

• Working Holiday Visa (Subclass 417): For people from the following countries who wish to visit Australia and supplement their holiday money with a temporary job: Belgium, Canada, Republic of Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hong Kong, Republic of Ireland, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Taiwan and United Kingdom.

• Work and Holiday Visa (Subclass 462): For people from the following countries who wish to visit Australia and supplement their holiday money with a temporary job: Bangladesh, Chile, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Thailand, Turkey and the USA.

• Subclass 457 – Business (Long Stay) Standard Business Sponsorship: A visa for employers to sponsor approved skilled workers to work in Australia on a temporary basis.

• Specialist entry visas: Visa options for those who are engaged in specific professional, cultural or social activities in Australia.

• Student visas: Student visa subclasses exist and are determined by your main course of study.

Australian Citizenship?

2009-01-21T01:24:00.000-08:00

Individuals who intend to remain in Australia for a longer period must file for citizenship. Those with citizenship can travel freely to and from Australia and may remain in the country indefinitely. They are also able to work in Australia. Eligibility is determined according to many different factors. Those who are typically considered eligible to apply for citizenship include those who are: migrants with permanent residence, spouses or partners of Australian citizens, children of former Australian citizens, members of the Commonwealth Child Migration Scheme, refugee or humanitarian entrants, or Australian citizens by adoption.

What is Australian Citizenship?

2009-01-20T01:23:00.000-08:00

Although there are temporary visas that will allow you to live and work in Australia, these are generally available only for a short period of time. If you wish to remain in Australia longer then seeking citizenship is necessary.

Advantages:

A person with citizenship has the following advantages:

Ability to vote in federal and state or territory elections, and in a referendum
Ability to apply for work in the Australian Public Service or in the Australian Defence Force
Ability to seek election to parliament
Ability to apply for an Australian passport and re-enter Australia freely
Ability to receive help from an Australian official while overseas
Ability to register children born overseas as Australian citizens by descent.

Limitations:

Although the advantages of holding citizenship are many, there are also a few limitations. They include the following:

Citizens of some countries may lose their existing citizenship if they become an Australian citizen, which may present an issue.

If you retain your previous nationality, the Embassy of your home country will no longer be able to interfere on your behalf with the Australian authorities.

Ways to Obtain Australian Citizenship

2009-01-19T01:20:00.000-08:00

Below is a short overview of some of the ways you can obtain Australian citizenship.

Family Relationships

A lot of immigrants acquire their citizenship through their relationships to Australian citizens. You may be able to apply for citizenship if you are:

· A spouse of an Australian citizen

· A natural child of a former Australian citizen

· An adopted child of an Australian citizen

It’s possible that you might already be an Australian citizen, too. Most children born in Australia before August 20, 1986 are Australian citizens by birth unless one parent had diplomatic privileges or was a consular officer of another country. Those born after that date are only Australian citizens if at least one parent was an Australian citizen or permanent resident at the time of their birth. Children born in Australia to parents who aren’t Australian citizens or permanent residents automatically obtain Australian citizenship on their 10th birthday if they have lived the majority of their life in Australia.

It is possible to apply for visas for other family members who are not children or parents. Special visas and considerations are given for:

· Brothers, sisters, or parents who live in Australia and are their only close relatives

· Aged individuals who rely on a relative in Australia for the majority of their living costs

· Individuals who must care for an Australian relative or a member of their family unit due to a medical condition

By Grant

In some cases, individuals can apply to become an Australian citizen even if they don’t have family relations in the country. Some requirements must be met that generally include that you:

Are an Australian permanent resident
Are over 16 years of age
Have lived in Australia as a lawful resident for a total of 4 years
Are of good character
Have a basic knowledge of English
Have a demonstrated knowledge of your responsibilities and privileges as a citizen
Are apt to reside in, or to maintain a continuing association with, Australia if given citizenship

Humanitarian and Refugee Status

If you are a refugee, you are eligible to apply for both visas and citizenship. In both cases, you must be seeking safety from persecution in your home country based on your religion, race, national origin, politics, or social group.

The visas that are available for refugees include:

· Refugee Visa (Subclass 200): For those who are subject to persecution in their home country and are in need of resettlement.

· In-country Special Humanitarian Program Visa (Subclass 201): For individuals who have suffered persecution in their country of nationality or usual residence and have not been able to leave that country to seek refuge somewhere else.

· Global Special Humanitarian Program Visa (Subclass 202): For those who, though not refugees, are subject to considerable discrimination and human rights abuses in their home country.

· Emergency Rescue Visa (Subclass 203): For those who satisfy refugee criteria and whose lives or freedom rely on immediate relocation.

· Woman at Risk Visa (Subclass 204): For female applicants, and their dependents, who are subject to persecution and are living outside their home country without the protection of a male relative and are in danger of victimization, harassment or serious abuse due to their gender.

Miscellaneous Categories

Several other possible avenues to obtaining citizenship exist. These include:

New Zealand and British citizens who have lived there for a long time
Papuans born before independence in 1975
Those who arrived under the Commonwealth Child Migration Scheme

Purpose of the Visitor Visa

2009-01-18T01:19:00.000-08:00

Visitors who want to visit Australia will normally have to obtain a visitor visa, or tourist visa, first. These visas are eligible for those who want to visit Australia for a holiday, sightseeing, social or recreational purpose, to visit relatives, friends or for additional purposes.

Visitor visas can cover those who are seeking retirement in Australia, medical treatment for up to 12 months, those who are transiting through Australia for 72 hours or less, and individuals who are visiting for conferences, special events, and meetings. Tourist visas are also covered under visitor visas and are used by those who are traveling to Australia for recreational purposes and to visit family members.

Visitor visas cannot be used if the travel wishes to seek employment while they are in Australia. However, processing time is minimal and depending on the type of visa, can be approved online in a matter of minutes. Some visitor visas can be extended beyond their original timeframes while others cannot.

Purpose of the Tourist Visa

2009-01-17T01:18:00.000-08:00

The Tourist visa is for individuals who are visiting Australia for:

· Recreational purposes

· Visiting family or friends

· Holidays or vacations

· Other tourism purposes

There are several different kinds of tourist visas available and the one that you apply for will depend upon what country you hold your passport from. For the most part, tourist visas can be applied for online.

Purpose of the Working Holiday Visa

2009-01-16T01:18:00.000-08:00

The Working Holiday and Work and Holiday programs promote cultural exchange by permitting young people to have an extended holiday supplemented by short-term employment ventures.

The Working Holiday Visa (Subclass 417) is for people aged 18 to 30 years of age, who are interested in a working holiday of up to 12 months. Under this visa subclass, visitors may:

Enter Australia within 12 months of grant
Remain up to 12 months
Leave and re-enter Australia any number of times while the visa is valid
Work in Australia for up to 6 months with each employer
Study for up to 4 months.

The Work and Holiday (Subclass 462) visa is for young people aged 18 to 30 who do not qualify for the Subclass 417 visa but wish to travel and work for up to 12 months in Australia. It is designed for those individuals from Bangladesh, Chile, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Turkey and the USA. For more information about this visa, please visit http://www.immi.gov.au/visitors/working-holiday/462/.

Purpose of the Business Visa

2009-01-15T01:16:00.000-08:00

There are several different visas available for those who are visiting Australia for business purposes. Some of these purposes include:

· Attending conferences or training sessions

· Conducting business with an Australia-based organization

· Conducting business negotiations or for an exploratory business visit

· Establishing a business in Australia

· Managing a new or existing business or invest in Australia.

The business visas do not include provisions for acting, musical performances or commercial film making. In addition, they do not include provisions for those who are organizing or who have been invited to speak at an international event, conference or meeting in Australia. These visas are covered under “Visitor visas.” For more information regarding the various subclasses of Business visas, including employer sponsored visas, please visit http://www.immi.gov.au/skilled/.

Entering Australia for Other Purposes

2009-01-13T01:15:00.000-08:00

If you plan to travel to Australia for purposes other than business or tourism, such as to study, to work, and so forth, you must apply for a specific visa in the appropriate category. Additional visa categories include:

Students
Refugees and humanitarians
Air and sea crew
Professionals and other skilled migrants
Doctors and nurses
Regional employment
Specialist entry
Family members

The Latrobe Street Gallery School in Melbourne

2008-12-13T09:08:00.000-08:00

About Clunes

Clunes is a small village one and a half hours drive north of Melbourne in country once mined for gold. To get there from Melbourne, you drive over the western plains, through valleys that supply Melbourne’s markets, past national parks and plantations and into pastoral country crossed with fences and dotted with villages. Clunes’ main street, Fraser Street, has shops with deep verandahs, a museum and massive buildings characteristic of the gold rush in Victoria.

The discovery of gold where Clunes is now, sparked the gold rush in Australia. Grains and small nuggets of gold were found in 1851 and would be miners rushed to the yellow pastures in the same year. By the late 1850s, it had a large population and new people were arriving all the time to dig and pan for gold or do business with the newly wealthy miners.

Artists went too – the gold rush and the country supplied artists with new imagery and patrons. Artists like S.T. Gill, Lindsay and Longstaff travelled through or lived in the area. Gill came to the gold fields in 1851 and lived on what he earned from painting the activities of the miners and the country they were in. Buvelot and von Guerard were also travelling around Victoria. A history of painting the landscape was just beginning in Australia and artists sought through the country around Clunes, to show how the land was used, to express nationhood or find new poetic forms. Landscape is still pursued, conceived of in many ways and expressed in different forms. There are still many artists living and working in this part of the country, working in a variety of ways – not just landscape.

The Latrobe Street Gallery School in Melbourne has a studio school in an old bank whose vault held the gold of the miners. The bank sits on the corner of Fraser Street fifty metres from the local museum. It has high ceilings and large rooms and has been renovated for up to ten artists to live and work under the tuition of some of Australia’s best artists. The studio is large, well-lit and built for the purpose. The school is situated in Clunes to take advantage of a quiet and safe place to learn in a part of Victoria with a history that ties in with the history of art in Australia.

The Latrobe Street Gallery School

The Latrobe Street Gallery School is an independent school of art teaching drawing, painting and design to artists and designers.

Classes are small and the curriculum is designed to intensively teach skills to people who are just starting out, preparing a folio or wanting to quickly develop their skills to a higher level. It has excellent teachers – artists working in a variety of media and forms, who between them have a wide knowledge of art, great technical expertise and professional experience.

The school also operates a gallery showing contemporary art by Australian artists and 26 studios in the centre of the city.

Studio school

Latrobe Street Gallery School in Melbourne has a studio school in Clunes, a village one and a half hours west of Melbourne, near the old gold-mining town of Ballarat. The school offers an Australian art program of six-week or three-month terms to artists in Australia and from around the world.

Students are taught painting and drawing and other skills in intensive weekend sessions by teachers who are some of the best artists in Australia. These teachers have a great range of technical and professional knowledge to give to students in a beautiful place where they can concentrate on their work without distraction.

Artist in residence program

The studio school at Clunes is a an opportunity to work intensively, developing and idea or form, and immerse yourself in a village surrounded by farms, forests and national parks.

The school has a large, purpose-built studio and a residence in an old bank which was built in the 1860s to store the gold found by the miners in and around Clunes. The residence and studio can be used by individuals, small groups and families.

The studio school in Clunes is run by the Latrobe Street Gallery School in Melbourne, an independent school of art and design that offers single-term courses in drawing, painting and design, and also a Master of Art through the Charles Sturt University.

Australia - The Movie Review

2008-11-26T19:06:00.000-08:00

Lord of the Rings gave us New Zealand and 2008’s Australia gave us, well, Australia. Baz Luhrmann breaks his seven year directorial drought to give us a sprawling epic of the most environmentally diverse country on the planet. Accompanied by an A-list cast, (Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman provide the love interest), Australia promises to chronicle the country’s most important period in history.

The world is at war, Japan threatens to strike against Australia and racism is rife. Lady Sarah Ashley, (Kidman), the overly proper housewife, travels to Faraway Downs to visit her husband’s cattle ranch with the aim to sell it to rival company, King Carney’s Cattle. Finding her husband murdered, the rugged Drover (Jackman) is convinced by Lady Ashley to cross country to honour a contract with the army. Love blossoms, racism is directed at the mixed-race aborigine children and we see the eventual attack on Australia. Divulging any further details would void your enjoyment in the film, but you will not be disappointed. It’s well written, well acted and has a coherent narrative structure, even if it is a tad long winded.

From a technical standpoint Australia is a visual masterpiece. Wide panoramic shots delight as the audience is treated to a breathtaking landscape. The score is on an equal-quality footing – orchestral pieces compliment the beauty of scenery. There’s an intrinsic sense of scale expressed in Australia which mirrors the human conflict shown. Rich colour, impressive special effects and period dress combine to produce an aesthetically pleasing film.

Acting wise, Australia really delivers. The chemistry between Kidman and Jackman is passionate, making it a delight to watch. Brandon Walters plays Nullah, the young Aboriginal boy to an adult standard. He’s charismatic, charming and cute – it’s a mature performance that he can be proud of. (David Wenham), Neil Fletcher is callous, brooding and a competent villain. Overall the casting is well throughout and it results in an enjoyable film.

It’s not all good. The film’s length results in viewer fatigue and there are characters which lack substantial development. The conclusion is expected and the twists are well signposted. It is difficult to feel involved when watching Australia – there’s definitely a distinct sense of detraction. A better conclusion would have resulted in a more satisfying experience, rather than one to quell consumer expectation. Cutting thirty minutes would have resulted in a sharper film and a better score. Still, there’s magic in the land down under and it’s worth losing yourself in it.
3/5

Living in Australia

2008-10-23T19:37:00.000-07:00

Australia is slightly smaller than the lower 48 continental states. It is the only nation in the world that is also an entire continent. The country is bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east and the Indian Ocean to the west.

The majority of Australia, including the entire central region, is semi-arid or desert and known as the ‘Outback.’ Over 40% of the landmass is sand dunes. The country’s population is concentrated on the eastern and southeastern coasts, where the climate is subtropical and temperate, respectively. The southwest corner is also temperate, while the northern region is tropical. The world’s largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, is located off Australia’s northeast coast.

Australia is divided into six states and two territories: New South Whales, Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia; Australian Capital Territory and Northern Territory.

Australia’s population is just over 20 million people, and the population growth rate is currently less than 1%. It has the lowest population density in the world - only two people per square kilometre. The majority of Australians are Caucasian (92%) while only about 1% of the population is Aboriginal or native peoples.

In Australia, people tend to say things in a humorous way and enjoy teasing, or ‘rubbishing,’ people, especially Americans. Australians expect punctuality for any appointments or engagements; if you are going to be late, be sure to call immediately. Even though Australia is similar to the United States, do not expect it to be exactly the same. Look for the small differences in Australian culture and learn from them rather than get frustrated over them and how it is not the same as home.

Food is much more expensive in Australia than it is here in the United States. For example, in Australia a half gallon of milk costs $3. Beef is the most common meat eaten in Australia, while chicken is relatively pricey. In the International House especially, the dining facilities serve some sort of lamb multiple times a week. Seafood is also common and very delicious in Australia. Australia’s restaurants reflect its multicultural society. Restaurants can be found for all tastes, although they are generally not cheap. Tipping policies are different from the United States’; you only tip in recognition of exceptional service.

A wide variety of religious beliefs are practiced in Australia, with no particular religion dominating all others. Catholicism is the most prevalent religion, with just over one-fourth of the population sharing Catholic beliefs. About one-fifth of the population consider themselves Anglican while the same amount practices other Christian religions. Small Buddhist and Muslim populations live in Australia, at about 2% and 1.5% of the population, respectively. Finally, over 10% of the population is unspecified regarding their religion and about 15% do not practice any religion.

Theme parks in Australia

2008-09-29T02:40:00.000-07:00

Whether you're young or simply young at heart, theme parks have the same appeal – and there's no shortage of them in Australia. The theme park “capital” is without a doubt Queensland's Gold Coast, which is home to four of Australia's largest and most popular theme parks. Definitely the place to go if you're an adrenalin junkie! The area's oldest theme park is Sea World, with its famous acrobatic water ski show, charming dolphin show, and more recently “Shark Bay” - where you can, if you want to for whatever reason, swim with the sharks. Yes, really. Dolphins are clearly too tame to present a challenge, these days.

There's also Movie World, where you'll learn all about the exciting world of Hollywood. It's a great educational experience for anyone with an interest in movies, their history, and film production etc. Plus you should keep an eye out as you're walking through the streets – you're as likely to bump into Batman here as you are to meet Mickey Mouse at Disney World! There are plenty of movie shows and themed rides to keep you enthralled and entertained, too.

The Gold Coast is also home to Wet 'n' Wild Water World (in fact, it's right next to Movie World), which involves lots of action and a very slim chance of staying dry. This is probably the biggest water theme park in Australia, so if you or the kids are into slides and pools and plenty of splashing around, this is the place for you!

The other major Australian theme park – also on the Gold Coast - is Dreamworld. This is a simply enormous venue: in fact, it basically has theme parks within theme parks. There's every sort of attraction you could possibly imagine (or dream of!), like water based rides, a tiger island, and some incredibly scary rides. Consider the Giant Drop – a freefall of 38 storeys! - or the sinister-sounding The Claw. The Claw will swing you at an alarming speed, all the while spinning you around and shooting you up to quite a height. Probably best not to have lunch first.

Dreamworld also contains Wiggles World, where fans of the popular Australian children's show can enjoy an interactive, musical Wiggles experience. There's also White Water World, right beside Dreamworld itself, and a special two-day pass will allow you to go freely between the two theme parks as often as you please. Great for getting the best of both Worlds, so to speak.

While Queensland's Gold Coast is definitely the best place for a holiday involving lots of theme parks, you'll probably be able to find one if you're visiting a different area, too. All the way over on the other side of Australia, for example, you'll find the likes of Adventure World at Bibra Lake (Western Australia), where there's a great variety of entertainment, from rollercoasters to water rides – even race tracks. That's probably the best one to try out if you're on the western side of the continent and unable to check out the Gold Cast parks.

Student Packing for Brisbane Australia

2008-07-20T19:34:00.000-07:00

Pack light. Remember that Brisbane is a modern city and you can buy almost anything that you need there. You want room in your suitcase to bring home all your souvenirs! You will be limited to two pieces of checked luggage (50lbs each) and one carry-on bag (15lbs max and they WILL weigh it!) on the flight. Although the luggage allowance seems ideal, this is a lot more than you can comfortably carry. Large, hard-sided suitcases are tough to maneuver and even more difficult to store. Use duffel bags with wheels or a good, internal frame backpack. If you’re going to be in a temporary accommodation during your first few weeks in Brisbane, keep in mind that you will move a lot so keep your packing light.

Clothing

What you will wear while in Australia will depend on what time of year you are there. If arriving in for February/March-June/July, it will be very hot when you first arrive. Bring shorts, tanks and sandals. By June and July, it will be cool enough for pants, long sleeved shirts and a light jacket. You will even see some people wearing scarves! If arriving June/July-December/January, you will go through the reverse process. Bring a couple of sweatshirts or fleeces for traveling and for the winter months.

Some fashion in Australia is similar to what you’re used to and some is very different. Young Australian men and women dress like to make a statement with their outfits. Do not be surprised when you see new styles, bright colors and crazy hairstyles. On campus, students tend to dress nicely but casually. Outfits include jeans, t-shirts, dresses and skirts. In summer, it is acceptable to wear shorts, t-shirts and light footwear.

For going out you should bring nice clothes--both guys and girls are required to dress nicely to get into many social establishments. Guys MUST wear pants, covered shoes, and collared shirts.

Sunscreen! Don’t forget to pack a lot of the highest SPF along with a hat on those extra hot days!

Australia's Double aspect

2008-05-13T02:31:00.000-07:00

….Judith Wright’s essay “Australia's Double aspect” is a work that best sums up the struggle of immigrants to accept Australia as their new country, their new home. The Double Aspect lies in the fact that for some Australia was the place of exile while for others it meant freedom and newness. For the “exiled” man this sense of not belonging, of refusing to conform, was reinforced by Australia's landscape itself since it was as far from the European ideals of landscape beauty as possible. Yet the “rebels” – as Wright calls them – saw a chance to achieve the impossible, to make a Utopia.

The presence of this duality, this inner fight to accept to physical transplantation and the intelectosectomy from the spring from which the mind received its nourishment is present in almost all Australian writers according to Wright. For her, in H.H. Richardson’s novel trilogy the story of the exiled European is moats prominently shown. The story of a man who returns to Australia after spending some time in his “home” country, i.e. the country of the mind, however, shows in the end that in order to allow ourselves to feel that we belong, or not even allow but genuinely feel that we belong, we have to let something in ourselves die. In this way, something that did die makes room for a more beneficial emotion, which is beneficial in that sense that it permits the newly found aspect of the intellect, as well as the psyche, to develop.

“… a certain kind of death is indeed what Australia has demanded
of us, a death of some things in us, to make room, perhaps, for
others. Change itself is a kind of death, and Australia has changed us…”

Wright suggests turning to literature, literature of exile and nostalgia, which can help Australians to understand their life there better and make Australia their new spiritual home. She further suggests recognizing the opportunity given with this immigration. Therefore, if these two aspects are combined Australians can become “… people who have seized the chance to make a new kind of consciousness out of our new conditions…”

The key to unifying these two aspects lies in the universalization of the Australian dream that “…emphasizes man’s duty to his brother, and man’s basic equality, the mutual trust, which is the force that makes a society cohere…” She ends the essay by saying that even if the Australians still do not know what they have gained by their struggle and death of their ‘alert consciousness’, they have gained something, and are becoming identified with Australia.

McAuley’s poem “Terra Australis” insists on Australia as a mythical place. The poet invites us on a journey to find that what de Quiros thought he had found. He, however, invites us on a journey within ourselves, a quest that will enable us to adapt to and adopt Australia. The skeleton of the poem actually alludes to the dreams and intentions Europeans had for Australia. Europeans had always had great hopes for Australia; conversely, the land was indifferent to these…..

Living in Brisbane

2008-03-23T19:39:00.000-07:00

Brisbane (pronounced /ˈbrɪzbən/) is the state capital and largest city of the Australian state of Queensland. With a population of approximately 2,000,000 it is also the third most populous city in Australia, behind Sydney and Melbourne. The city is situated on the Brisbane River on a low-lying floodplain between Moreton Bay and the Great Dividing Range in south-eastern Queensland. The local indigenous people knew the area as Mian-jin, meaning 'place shaped as a spike'.

Brisbane has a humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and dry, mild winters. From late Spring through to early Autumn, thunderstorms are common over Brisbane, with the more severe events accompanied by large damaging hail stones, torrential rain and destructive winds.

The Australian Census in 2006 showed that 1.7% of Brisbane's population were of indigenous origin and 21.7% were born overseas, Of those born outside of Australia, the three main countries of birth were New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom.

Brisbane has a growing live music scene, both popular and classical. The Queensland Performing Arts Centre, which is located at South Bank, consists of the Lyric Theatre, a Concert Hall, Cremorne Theatre and the Playhouse Theatre. The Queensland Ballet, Opera Queensland, Queensland Theatre Company and other performance art groups stage regular performances in the different venues. It is also the major performing venue for The Queensland Orchestra, Brisbane's only professional symphony orchestra and Queensland's largest performing arts company. Along with Beijing, Berlin, Birmingham and Marseille, Brisbane was nominated as one of the Top 5 International Music Hotspots by Billboard in 2007. There are also popular entertainment pubs and clubs within both the City and Fortitude Valley.

Australian Culture and Landscapes

2008-02-26T17:46:00.000-08:00

Australia is a quintessential land of contrasts. From the vast empty spaces of the
Outback to lush, ancient rainforests and from the dazzling colors of the Great Barrier
Reef to bustling cosmopolitan cities, this country has something for everyone.

Sydney

One of the most beautiful cities in the Southern Hemisphere. Explore the Sydney Harbor area by catamaran, including Darling Harbor (Sydney Aquarium), Circular Quay and the Rocks, Taronga Zoo and Watson’s Bay. You can disembark at any of these stops throughout the day. Enjoy a world-class performance at the famous Sydney Opera House.

Port Douglas

Port Douglas, a quaint coastal town that is a perfect base for exploring the Great Barrier Reef and the rainforests of tropical North Queensland. Enjoy a wildlife cruise on picturesque Trinity Inlet,and view hundreds of estuarine crocodiles at Australia’s largest commercial crocodile farm.

In the morning experience the symphony and color of tropical birds wandering freely amongst the tables as you partake in North Queensland’s best ‘Breakfast with the Birds.’ You also will have close encounters with iconic Australian wildlife, such as koalas, kangaroos,and wallabies. In the afternoon you will explore a different environment with marine biologists, learning about coral reefs, fish, and other marine life that you will see in a few days time.

Great Barrier Reef daytrip

The Great Barrier Reef is one of the most spectacular natural features of our planet. Cruise by luxury catamaran out to the outer barrier reef, where you may choose to snorkel or scuba dive, or stay dry and view the many colorful fish and coral by glass bottom boat or semi-submersible vessel.

Undara

A visit to Tjapukai Aboriginal Park, where you will be greeted by your indigenous guide who will escort you through the park as you discover the ancient Aboriginal culture through theatres, stage shows, and demonstrations. From here, walk to the Skyrail Rainforest Cableway experience, which spans 7.5 kilometers over Australia’s pristine tropical rainforests. You will glide just meters above the rainforest canopy, stopping at Skyrail’s two rainforest mid-stations to learn about this unique ecosystem. You will have time to explore the markets of Kuranda before continuing on to the Outback and Undara Resort.

Undara is a place to explore natural geological wonders, relax in the comforts and hospitality of a unique Outback setting, and watch the abundant local wildlife in their natural surroundings. Accommodation is in very special turn of the century Queensland railway carriages, which have been lovingly restored to their former glory and evoke the glamour of great train journeys of long ago.

Tour the famous Undara Lava Tubes, the result of one of the longest lava flows from a single volcano on our planet in modern geological time.

Cape Tribulation

Kuku Yalanji, the traditional owners of Daintree National Park, will welcome you to Mossman Gorge, where crystal clear water cascades over large granite boulders and lush rainforests cloak the rugged eastern slopes of the Main Coast Range. Your Aboriginal guides will explain traditional plant use, identify bush tucker sources, share their dreamtime legends, explain the history of cave paintings, and demonstrate the didgeridoo. Continue north to your accommodation in Cape Tribulation, home to one of the oldest and most diverse rainforests in the world.

You may choose to go kayaking, take a local fruit tasting tour, or simply relax and walk along a beautiful white sand beach. In the afternoon, you can visit the Daintree Discovery Centre, which offers visitors an opportunity to learn about and explore one of the few remaining unspoiled pockets of lowland rainforest in Far North Queensland. As the sun sets over the trees, watch the jungle come to life with a night wildlife spotting tour. Most rainforest animals are nocturnal and you may see snakes, lizards, possums, spiders, bandicoots, birds, insects and more.

World Heritage

2008-01-02T08:50:00.000-08:00

To be named as a World Heritage site, a place must be of exceptional value to the world. This might be somewhere like a ruined city from a civilisation that no longer exists, or a nature site that is the home for endangered species. These sites have to be protected for future generations.

Think how much poorer our world heritage would be without icons like the Egyptian pyramids, the temples at Machu Picchu in Peru, or the Old City of Jerusalem. It is nice to know that these sites are being protected so that children in future will also be able to learn about them.

The idea of creating an organisation to preserve world heritage was proposed after World War I, but it was not until the 1960s that the idea began to take off. In the 1960s, countries all over the world donated over US$80 million to help in the preservation of the temples of Ramses II and Queen Nefertari at Abu Simbel in Egypt. The valley the temples were built in was going to be flooded as part of a dam project on the River Nile and the temples would be lost forever. The money was raised and by 1968 five of the temples were moved to an area where they would be safe.

At the same time, other places of cultural and natural value around the world were also under threat. The international community decided to create a list of all the places of importance to world heritage. The list was compiled by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). In 1972 UNESCO adopted an international treaty called the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Over 170 countries are now signed up to that convention which means they have to preserve heritage sites in their own countries and work with other countries to preserve World Heritage.

To be placed on the World Heritage list a site is classified as either 'natural' or 'cultural'.

To be a natural site it must be an outstanding example of:

A stage in the Earth's history.
Ongoing evolution in the Earth's biology and ecology.
An important natural habitat for plants and animals.
An area of outstanding beauty.

To be listed as a 'cultural' site it must be;

A place that shows human creativeness in areas like science, art or history.
A place that shows human development and progress.
An example of a civilisation that has disappeared or died out.
Representative of a significant stage in human history.

Australians are lucky because the country is particularly rich in World Heritage listed areas, with 17 sites (both natural and cultural). Most of Australia's World Heritage sites are from the natural world. Here is a list of just some of them:
Natural

The Great Barrier Reef (Queensland)
Kakadu National Park (Northern Territory)
The Blue Mountains (New South Wales)
The Willandra Lakes Region (New South Wales)
Shark Bay (Western Australia)

Cultural

The Royal Exhibition Building and Carlton Gardens (Melbourne)
The Sydney Opera House (added June 2007)

The great thing about World Heritage sites is that they belong to ALL the people of the world, so you can own the heritage of places as far away as Peru and Ireland as well as the amazing heritage in Australia. Have a look at some World Heritage sites outside Australia.

Giant's Causeway
The Giant's Causeway lies on the north coast of Antrim in Northern Ireland. It is made up of over 40 000 huge rock columns that stick out of the sea. Irish legends say that the Causeway was built for giants to be able to walk over the sea to Scotland. The amazing site was created by volcanoes over 50 million years ago.

Machu Picchu
The ancient Inca sanctuary in Peru is situated 2400 metres above sea level in the middle of a tropical mountain forest in Peru. The city and its high walls were built out of the mountain and are an amazing feat of engineering for such an ancient civilisation.

The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China is another amazing feat of engineering. It was built more than 2000 years ago to protect China from invaders. It is the longest building in the world, at 6000 kilometres.

Every year, new places are put on the World Heritage list for protection, but there are also many more that are put on the endangered list. These are places where the site is in danger of being lost forever. Many older structures were built from mud bricks which are naturally eroding and cannot last forever. Many sites are also endangered through pollution, de-forestation and through many other examples of human interference. Wars also take their toll on World Heritage sites. The 13th century city of Dubrovnik in Europe was badly damaged during the war in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s. During the second Gulf War, there were great concerns for many of the ancient cities in Iraq. The National Museum in Baghdad was looted and many of the national treasures there were stolen or destroyed. Thankfully the World Heritage-listed sites of Hatra and Ashur remain undamaged by the conflict.

Australian horse racing, sport or culture?

2007-12-28T09:02:00.000-08:00

After football and rugby, horse racing is the third most popular spectating sport in Australia. No less than 360 racecourse are registered, which is the largest number worldwide. The annual number of horses starting in the races leaves Australia only after the U.S. Looking at the prize money, Australia comes in third of the world. With about 12,5 billion dollar in wages on an annual basis, Australian horse racing may call itself a multi-billion dollar industry. Being such a big industry it provides a very large amount of jobs and over 300.000 people are directly or indirectly involved in horse ownerships.

Along with the first fleet, on 26 January 1788 the first horses entered down under, bringing horse racing with them. By 1810 horse racing had founded its ground around Sydney and the Australian Jockey Club (AJC) saw its first light of day. The headquarters of the AJC settled in Randwick and started regulating the sport. Nowadays the Australian Racing Board (ARB) regulates and administers the sport abiding by the Australian Rules of Racing. Even though there is a national board there are differences in ruling per state. One of the board’s responsibilities is to make sure the additional state rules do not conflict with the national rules.

There are two kinds of thoroughbred races in Australia. Flat racing and steeplechase racing in South Australia and Victoria. Over a hundred thousand people attend to these races every year. With international races such as the Melbourne Cup, Victoria is to be considered the basis of Australian horse racing.

The Melbourne Cup is by far the most famous race in Australia. This race has a history that goes back to 1877. Ever since then, every first Tuesday of November is known as Cup Day. It has become the most famous Tuesday of Australia, so popular it even became a public holiday in the Melbourne region. On this day all of Australia doesn’t think of anything else and attend to the racecourse at large. There is a very festive mood throughout the race and it has become a place for people to show off looking their Sunday’s best. Some people attend wearing traditional race track fashion and others just dress up in how they see fit. There are even prizes to win for the best dressed man and woman.

Former thoroughbred race horses are often continuing their carreer in steeple chasing, which is also very popular throughout Australia.

In 2007 the horse racing industry had a rough time. It was in this year that Equine Influenza was discovered on very large horse complex in Sydney. The disease spread very fast to a lot of areas of New South Wales and southern Queensland. Immediately all competing horse activities were brought to a hold. Luckily the racing resumed rather quickly in the areas where the Equine Influenza had not spread. This was a lot of pressure on the industry because of the lack of Standardbreds and Thoroughbreds.

Horse racing in Australia is more than just a sport. It is of high importance to the Australian culture. High society and working class meet on the racetracks sharing their passion for a high quality equestrian sport.

William McMahon

2007-11-23T21:24:00.000-08:00

William 'Billy' McMahon became Prime Minister of Australia at the advanced age of 63 and was in office for less than two years. He came at the end of 23 years of uninterrupted Liberal-Country Party coalition government, and is one of the less admired of the Australian Prime Ministers. People often remember McMahon for non-political reasons, such as allegations of his secret homosexuality, his marriage to the glamorous Sonia, or for being the father of Julian McMahon, a successful Hollywood actor.

McMahon was born in Sydney in 1908. He studied economics and law at the University of Sydney and practised as a solicitor with Allen, Allen and Hemsley, Australia's oldest law firm. He served in the Army in World War II and subsequently stood for election in the inner Sydney seat of Lowe. He was elected in 1949, along with a large number of other new Liberal candidates. This group became known as the 'forty-niners'.
Occupying a variety of portfolios under Menzies, McMahon was to spend 21 straight years as a minister, which was a record in Australian politics. Under Holt, McMahon served as Treasurer and as Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party.

As Deputy Leader and a senior minister McMahon was in a strong position to take over the leadership on the death of Holt in 1967. However, the strong-willed John McEwen, another senior cabinet member and leader of the Country Party, who had been appointed caretaker Prime Minister, blocked McMahon's way. He announced that he and the Country Party would not serve in a government led by McMahon. The two men had been in conflict for some time, particularly over economic issues. Earlier in 1967, McMahon (as Treasurer) had been responsible for the revaluation of the Australian currency while McEwen, strongly opposed to any revaluation, was overseas. McMahon withdrew from the ballot and John Gorton eventually won the vote and was sworn in as Prime Minister in January of 1968.

McMahon retained his position of Deputy Leader. He also took over the portfolio of External Affairs (now called Foreign Affairs and Trade). Continuing dissatisfaction with Gorton's leadership style and internal party problems arising from his strict position on States' rights led to McMahon mounting a second challenge to Gorton. This was successful and McMahon was commissioned as Prime Minister on 10 March 1971.

McMahon's time in office was dominated by foreign affairs issues. Australia's involvement in the war in Vietnam was growing ever more unpopular and controversial, and in 1971 McMahon met with US President Richard Nixon, but the media interest was focused mostly on the 'daring' dress, tight-fitting and split up the thigh, worn by Sonia McMahon to a White House dinner. 'The Dress', as it was known, is now displayed in the Powerhouse Museum in Sydney.

In August 1972, shortly before being defeated in a federal election, McMahon announced that Australia would begin withdrawing troops from Vietnam. McMahon also oversaw the granting of independence to the Australian territories of Papua New Guinea. Issues surrounding engagement in Asia also plagued McMahon.

The McMahon government refused to recognise the Communist regime in China, and in June of 1971 Opposition Leader Gough Whitlam led a Labor Party delegation to China and promised to establish diplomatic relations with China if he was elected.

McMahon's prime ministership saw some social changes in Australia as well, previewing a more modern nation. The emergence of an environmentalist movement was manifested in the 'Green Bans' imposed by the Builders' Labourers Federation (BLF) under Jack Mundey. These actions preserved large areas of the Rocks and Centennial Park as well as other parks and bushland in Sydney. The early 1970s also saw the establishment of the Women's Electoral Lobby and the first Aboriginal Legal Service, as well as the opening of the first McDonalds in Australia.

Although McMahon received some criticism for the removal of the Aboriginal 'Tent Embassy' which was set up on the lawn outside Parliament House, Canberra in 1972, his passing of the Child Care Act 1972 (Cth) was welcomed, as it allowed the government to fund the establishment and running of non-profit child care centres.
McMahon's stance on China had to be rethought when President Nixon announced his intention to visit there, and his reputation for economic management while Treasurer was undermined by high inflation during his term. He was thought to come across poorly in the media and was outclassed in parliamentary debate by the witty and intimidating Whitlam.
In the December 1972 election campaign he faced a hostile press and was outperformed by Whitlam in general. When Whitlam won the election (although by a narrow margin) McMahon resigned the Liberal leadership. He served as a shadow minister under his successor, Billy Snedden.

The end of the Menzies era and Holt's disappearance in December 1967 had led to a five-year period of instability and transition within the coalition. This instability was driven by events such as McEwen's refusal to serve in a government led by McMahon; the challenges to Gorton's leadership of the Liberals and his removal as Prime Minister; McEwen's replacement by J.D. Anthony as Leader of the Country Party, and McMahon's eventual election loss and resignation as Liberal leader.

He remained a backbencher from 1975 to 1982 in Malcolm Fraser's government and was knighted in 1977. He stayed in parliament as a backbencher until his resignation in 1982, by which time he was the longest-serving member of the House. He died of cancer in Sydney in 1988.

No Australian prime minister has had as bad press as McMahon. He was unpopular with his colleagues and was haunted throughout his life by rumours that he was homosexual. However, some historians view McMahon as a highly efficient minister and an excellent Treasurer who was too old, out of touch and unpopular to be a great prime minister.

Art galleries in Australia

2007-06-21T02:42:00.000-07:00

Art plays a significant role in Australian culture, as evidenced by the sheer number of galleries throughout the continent. Australia's premier gallery and museum is the National Gallery of Australia, established as a national public art gallery in Canberra in 1967. It's a good choice for anyone who wishes to get an overview, as its vast collections (holding over 120,000 pieces!) include everything from Western, Eastern, European and Australian Art dating right through from Medieval times, to sculptures, Modern Art and Photography.

Elsewhere, the National Gallery of Victoria is Australia's largest and oldest public art gallery, founded in 1861, and its art school has produced some of the country's leading artists over the years. It is famous for its large “blockbuster” exhibitions, such as the Impressionists exhibition in 2004. It has had its fair share of notorious incidents, too – Pablo Picasso's “The Weeping Woman” was once famously stolen (and later returned) by a “terrorist” organisation calling itself the “Australian Cultural Terrorists”! The gallery's name has been the subject of much dispute, given that Victoria is not, in fact, a nation, but a state of Australia. It was, of course, established before the Commonwealth of Australia, at which time Victoria was actually a self-governing British colony, and despite the arguments, the National Gallery of Victoria has proudly held on to its name.

Another major cultural institution is the Art Gallery of New South Wales, the fourth largest public art gallery in Australia. This is a great choice for those visitors wishing to immerse themselves in Australian art, as it devotes a lot of its vast exhibition space to work by Australian artists from settlement times right through to the contemporary period. Amongst many others represented are 19th century artists such as John Glover, Sydney Long and Tom Roberts, and 20th century artists like James Gleeson, Hugh Ramsay and John Olsen. You'll also find extensive European and Asian collections. The Art Gallery of New South Wales is an important and distinguished establishment in the Australian art world, and hosts a number of prestigious art prizes and awards – not least the long running and highly prominent Archibald Prize.

It would be impossible to list in sufficient detail all the major art galleries of Australia, because each one has its own unique appeal and special place in Australia's culture and history. The Art Gallery of South Australia, for example, has the largest state art collection after the National Gallery of Victoria, and is particularly highly regarded for its outstanding collections of European, Asian and Australian art – its colonial and Indigenous Australian collections are especially recommended for enthusiasts. Then there's the Art Gallery of Western Australia, a pleasantly eclectic mix of art collections from the world over, with permanent exhibitions including a comprehensive collection of work by artists from the Northern Territory. Alternatively, the Soho Art Gallery in Sydney provides emerging artists from Australia and New Zealand with the exhibition space and exposure they need to gain recognition, and so is an ideal place to see fresh new artistic talent.

Whatever your preferences and interests, Australia's rich artistic culture is well represented in its art galleries, and it is definitely worth paying a visit to at least a few of these magnificent establishments during your stay in Australia.

The aroma of fine cuisine and taste of exceptional wine in Western Australia

2007-05-13T02:36:00.000-07:00

In your accommodation in Western Australia you will be delighted to taste the succulent, mouth watering and aromatic cuisine while sipping the fine wine of this region. Its local fresh produce and mouth watering tasty ingredient are sure to tantalize your taste buds.

Western Australia’s succulent seafood

Western Australia offers fresh, mouth watering seafood all year around. You can enjoy a fresh caught barramundi or a snapper; these are a regular feature in Perth restaurants. You will find various award winning restaurants offering you a wide variety of prawn, crab, squid, mussels, oyster and cray fish, these are some of the delights waiting for your taste buds.

There are varieties of options to choose from when you want to dine out in Western Australia. You can choose from a nice little cozy dinner at a fine dining restaurant to a relaxing atmosphere of café or a cheerful pub, whatever is your desire, Western Australia dining experience is sure to satisfy your culinary hunger.

For the sophisticated wine lover

You will find Western Australia’s wine a delightful blend of sophistication and taste, major production of wine is done in the Margaret River area, which is one of the world's magical areas for chardonnay, producing powerfully intense wines of great length and elegance. They take longer than their Australian peers to evolve, but when they do, they are universally agreed to be Australia's finest.

To enjoy these wines from the source you can visit The Swan Valley which is right on Perth’s doorstep and offers numerous wining and dining options. It’s easy to fall in love with Margaret River region which is home to spectacular surf, lush forest and most famous, of course, are the wineries with many international awards to their credit.

For beer buffs

In Western Australia Pubs is a favorite meeting place and centre of social activity for Australians to enjoy popular food, live entertainment and getting together with friends. The boutique beer scene is thriving in Western Australia. Check out Little Creatures in Fremantle or head for one of the brew houses in the Swan Valley, Margaret River or Pemberton.

There are beautiful cottages, Bed & Breakfasts, Farm Stays, Self-Contained Cottages/Apartments, Eco Lodges and Heritage Properties which are available for you to choose from and make your holiday to Western Australia truly a memorable one.

Children's attractions in Australia

2007-02-21T02:39:00.000-08:00

Keep the kids entertained by making your sightseeing excursions in Australia as fun-filled and varied as possible – with a little planning, this is easily done in such a large country full of endless natural and manmade children's attractions!

Wildlife, for example, will be a big favourite with your little ones, and Australia's vast array of colourful birds and cuddly animals will certainly appeal to them. Be sure to check out some of the zoos and wildlife sanctuaries: Sydney's Koala Park Sanctuary is ideal (an also has a collection of other native animals such as kangaroos, dingoes, wombats etc.), and children will love something like the Australian Woolshed in Brisbane – a glimpse of life in the outback, which allows kids to try their hand at milking cows and bottle-feeding lambs, or even to take part in a traditional bush dance!

Of course, there will be plenty of 'touristy' things that you want to see and do in the big cities, and there's no reason why that needs to be boring for the younger members of your party. Let them see Sydney Harbour from a different perspective by taking a ferry from Circular Quay to Manly, thus adding a bit of excitement to the experience for them. In fact, this is a great tip for keeping children entertained when you're travelling: just find unusual ways of making the journey! A ferry, a JetCat, the monorail... there are plenty of creative ways to make travelling fun. Particularly popular with tourists, and especially amongst the younger ones, is Melbourne's tram network – especially the City Circle tram, which is free and a great way to get around the city. There are lots of fun options like this, such as the Steam Ranger Tourist Railway in Adelaide, and Melbourne's Puffing Billy steam train.

Kids love beaches, and Australia has plenty of those to offer. Many have play equipment for children, and lots of shaded picnic areas and BBQs. Check out the beaches on the Sunshine Coast, such as the Golden Beach in Caloundra – here, you'll find plenty of waterspout action, and warm, calm waters that are ideal for young swimmers. There are also some great park areas where kids will happily spend hours tiring themselves out: South Bank Parklands is a perfect example, with its swimming lagoon complete with sandy beach and rocky creeks that just beg to be explored.

Visiting museums and similar attractions can also be fun for the kids in Australia – just pick some of the more unusual ones, and you're guaranteed that they'll have a wonderful time. What child wouldn't enjoy the National Dinosaur Museum? And Ripley's Believe It Or Not! Museum will delight every child, with its bizarre exhibits and mysterious stories. Throw in some education with a trip to one of Australia's many science attractions, like the Sir Thomas Brisbane Planetarium, or Spotswood's Scienceworks (where you can see Australia's very first car and plane), and give them some hands-on experience at the popular (and interactive) Questacon – the National Science and Technology Centre. Young space enthusiasts will demand to see the Deep Space Communications Complex, which is a NASA tracking station near Canberra.

There's definitely no shortage of things for the kids to do in Australia – and we haven't even mentioned the theme parks...

More Business Brokers Than Kangaroos in Perth

2006-11-01T07:33:00.000-08:00

The land down under is quickly becoming the world's worst kept secret, and as a result, business brokers in Perth are experiencing a business explosion. Business brokers in Perth will remind you that the city is Australia's fourth largest urban city. The western Australian state is also becoming a favorite landing spot for British-born residents, who according to a 2001 survey, made up about 24% of the city's population. Any business broker in Perth worth his or her own weight will also tell you that Perth is Australia's fastest growing city, with a measured growth rate of about 2.1% as of 2006.

The city is an easy sell for most business brokers in Perth, as besides experiencing tremendous population growth, the city is quickly becoming the cultural center of Australia, with arguably the country's best art gallery, the Western Australian Art Gallery being located in the heart of Perth.

Australia's best beaches, an amazing Mediterranean climate, and the country's leading research institutions are reasons for anyone to consider acquiring a business in the city.

The 1.3 million square meters of office space in the city's central business district make it an easy sell for business brokers in Perth. However, one should be cautioned that both the size and variety of opportunities makes a business broker in Perth an almost necessary consideration. Australia is much larger, and more difficult to navigate than most would imagine. As a result, anyone thinking of entering this specific market should consider the benefits that hiring a business broker in Perth can have on a successful acquisition.

For anyone looking to enter the Australian business market, Triaz International, a business broker in Perth, is a good place to start looking. Triaz International's experience as a business broker in Perth makes it the ideal partner for anyone looking to either sell or acquire a business in the Australian city.

DUI Laws in Australia

2006-06-21T02:32:00.000-07:00

DUI or Driving Under Influence (of alcohol or any narcotic substance) is a serious offence in almost every country today. USA, Canada, EU, Australia, Japan and several other nations take it extremely seriously since reckless driving under the influence of alcohol causes thousands of deaths annually all over the world. Australian government has decided to further crack down on those who drink and drive and have introduced stringent DUI laws to curb this unhealthy practice.

BAC (Blood Alcohol Content) restrictions in Australia

DUI laws in Australia vary from one state to the other and a detailed list along with alcohol levels in blood, punishments and other regulations are given below. However, all states do not consider it as an offence is BAC (Blood Alcohol Content) level is below 0.05ml per liter of blood. Cops can stop anybody they suspect of driving on the roads to conduct a random breathalyzer test.

All the states and regions except for Northern Territory, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria allow a BAC level of up to 0.02 for younger, inexperienced drivers, those holding a driving license for less than 12 months (and in some cases driving licenses for less than 3 years), those who have been recently issued driving licenses and are still under 25 years of age and those with previous records of conviction for DUI.

A similar BAC limit has also been imposed on drivers of heavy vehicles (13.5 Mt and above), commercial vehicles, those driving licensed public vehicles like cabs, radio taxi, buses or any other vehicle with more than 12 seats. The BAC limit is 0.02 in all the states and regions except for Tasmania where they have extremely strict DUI laws and even a faint amount of alcohol in the body is enough to get a driver fined.

Punishments for Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol

Australian government and police department takes driving under influence of alcohol very strongly and strict punishments are meted out to those who repeat DUI offences. The punishments imposed vary from one state to the other.

Punishments are fines for DUI in Australia are meted out based on the laws of each state, level of intoxication, number of times the offence has been repeated and other actions of the convict like refusal to stop the vehicle in spite of repeated orders by the police staff on the spot, refusal to get a breath analysis test done on the spot etc.

Fines starting from AU$550 to AU$3000 can be imposed in addition to prison sentences ranging from 3-9 months. The sentences can be higher in case of serious offences. The court can also direct an offender to a rehabilitation program conducted for those with alcohol addiction. In severe cases, cases of extremely high BAC levels and reckless driving under the influence, driver’s license can be cancelled on the spot by the police officer until the case is heard by the local court and a judgment is passed.

Defending Your Case

An offender booked for DUI in Australia can choose to hire a lawyer, request the state to provide legal assistance or even represent the case him or herself.

Sydney Star Attractions

2006-06-14T21:38:00.000-07:00

Sydney is the capital of NSW. In Sydney there are two places that are the most popular tourist location they are the Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Sydney Oprah.

Sydney Harbour Bridge

The Sydney Harbour Bridge is one of the most famous landmarks, it was finished in 1932. The Sydney Harbour also known as the coat hanger took 8 years to build. The construction of the bridge began in December 1926.

The bridge is 39 feet deep and 39 meters/118 feet long. The arch of the bridge was started in November 1929. The Sydney Harbour Bridge was officially opened on the 19th of March 1932.

The bridge was built by 1400 workers, 16 of them died of accidents in the construction. Painting the bridge became an endless task. Science shows that 50 years after people are extinct the bridge will collapse.

The pylon lookout is recommended to all visitors to Sydney to see how the bridge was exactly made. Entry to the pylon is from the penetration walkway on the Harbour Bridge. You can get to the walkway via, the stairs in Cumberland street, The rocks, or from near Milsons point station on the north side.

Sydney Opera House

The Sydney opera house is one of the most famous stages in the world.

The Sydney opera house is a multi-venue performing arts center it is located on Bennelong point. It was built by Danish architect Jorn Utzon. Jorn Utzon won the Pritzker prize, which is an award for the architects highest honor.

People think that the Sydney opera house is one of the greatest master pieces. This is what some one said There is no doubt that the Sydney opera house is one of the great iconic buildings of the 20th century, an image of great beauty that has become known throughout the world as a symbol for not only a city but a whole country and continent.

The exclusive wonder of nature in Western Australia

2006-03-27T02:35:00.000-08:00

The experience of Western Australia is totally unique; you will not have time to stay in your bed and breakfast room as nowhere in the world will you find the amazing corals full of vibrant fish, largest monolith, Jewel cave, thousands of limestone pillars, soaring red gorges and colossal waterfalls.

Here are some places where you will find exclusive to this part of world:

Ningaloo
This is the reef at Western Australia's mid north coast, it’s termed as one of Earth's last ocean paradises. The marine park stretches 260 kilometers from Bundegi Reef near the town of Exmouth to Amherst Point near Coral Bay in the south.

You can dive with hundreds of tropical fish, colorful coral and world's biggest fish, the whale shark, at unspoiled Ningaloo Reef. It’s perfect for a snorkel swim with elegant manta rays, dolphins and schools of brightly colored fish in clearest turquoise blue water. You can also see rare turtle species hatch here in late January and February.

Shark Bay

Shark bay is world renowned for its bottle nose dolphins of Monkey mia. The dolphins are well-known for their almost daily ritual of swimming to shore to interact with humans. The turquoise waters are so clear that you can easily spot the docile dugongs, manta rays and marine turtles.

Shark Bay is also home to the remarkable Hamelin Pool stromatolites - the oldest and largest living fossils in the world.

Mount Augustus

The monument of Aboriginal history, rock art and wildlife, Mount Augustus rises an incredible 860 meters above the surrounding plain and is twice to size of Uluru, making it the biggest rock in the world. Aboriginal culture can be seen in mysterious caves and ancient aboriginal rock art sites that have remained untouched for thousands of years. You can see evidence of their lives in the engravings on rock walls at Mundee, Ooramboo and Beedoboon

Jewel Cave

Hidden in the beautiful Karri forest, Jewel cave has giant formations of crystals and very little natural light. You descent down a long, narrow tunnel which opens at the top of first giant cavern makes for a spectacular introduction to the cave.

There are beautiful cottages, Bed & Breakfasts, Farm Stays, Self-Contained Cottages/Apartments, Eco Lodges and Heritage Properties which are available for you to choose from and make your holiday to Western Australia truly a memorable one.

Escaping Emus at Warrawong Sanctuary, Stirling, South Australia

2006-02-23T07:43:00.000-08:00

Trek through bush and wetland; breathe in the thick perfume of native gum trees, keeping a weather eye on the treetops for koalas and kookaburras perched sky high; go squinty-eyed with wonder as you search the mirror-calm waters for the telltale whirl of platypus—You’re deep inside Warrawong Wildlife Sanctuary, and the real world is a universe away. Feeling a bit like David Attenborough? Stay late for the guided nocturnal tours to see what trouble the bandicoots and ‘roos find when they think no one’s watching.

Australia and UN Conventions

2006-01-25T21:27:00.000-08:00

The United Nations (UN) has put in place many treaties, conventions and protocols over its history. These are intended to address issues of international significance and to put down in writing the universal agreements or standards that should be upheld. Many of these conventions are uncontroversial in Australia and are unlikely to be breached, but might be controversial or breached in other parts of the world.

An example of this might be the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, which seeks to set out the civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights of children. It was adopted into international law in 1989 and came into force in 1990, after being ratified by the required number of nations. The Convention acknowledges that every child has certain basic rights, including the right to life, his or her own name and identity, to be raised by his or her parents within a family or cultural grouping and have a relationship with both parents, even if they are separated. It is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of the Child. Most UN member states have ratified this Convention.

In Australia these rights would generally not come into question, but in countries (usually developing countries) where children are put into the workplace or used as soldiers, these conventions on children's rights need to be enforced so that children around the world have equal rights, access to justice and economic and personal security.

Governments agree to treaties in the first instance. Treaties are then 'ratified'. Ratification is the process of adopting an international treaty by a country's legislature, constitution or other nationally binding document (such as an amendment to a constitution). A convention must be ratified by a certain number of countries before it becomes binding at international law. It is important to understand that this does not mean that it has any legal binding in the internal law of any given country.

A convention only becomes binding at law in a country when it is implemented into the law. Implementation comes through the passage of legislation which sets down as domestic law the provisions of the convention or treaty. An example of this would be the Antarctic (Environmental Protection) Legislative Amendment Act 1992 (Cth), which implemented the international Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, which was opened for signature in 1991 and came into force in 1998. It is the choice of the parliament whether to do this at all, so some conventions may never become binding at law in a country. They act more as guidelines for countries to follow or as official agreements about the universal standards for the treatment of people or environments.

One historical example of the implementation of a convention with great effect on the internal issues of a country is the Franklin Dam case. In the 1980s there was widespread opposition to the construction of the Franklin Dam, which would have drowned the Franklin River valley as part of a hydroelectricity project. The dispute became a federal issue the following March, when it was campaigned on by the victorious government of Bob Hawke.

A legal battle between the federal government and Tasmanian State government followed the Hawke victory. In a landmark High Court decision, it was ruled that the Hawke Government had the power to overrule Tasmania in the Franklin Dam case because Australia was a signatory to a World Heritage agreement, so this issue fell under the Commonwealth's powers over 'external affairs'. Section 51 (xxix) of the Constitution allows the federal government to make laws based on treaties signed with other countries, and thus the federal government could make laws which would overrule the State of Tasmania.

The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage was passed by the UN in 1972 and was ratified and entered into force in 1975. During the 1983 Franklin Dam dispute the federal government passed the World Heritage Properties Conservation Act 1983 (Cth) to implement the Convention. This law ended the Tasmanian government's plans.

This case is of particular significance as it effectively established that under the external affairs power of Section 51 (xxix) the federal Government has the scope to enact legislation on any matter which is covered by an international convention or treaty. While this greatly enlarges the scope of federal power, it also brings about responsibility for following the provisions of international conventions or treaties.

Several High Court decisions have substantially increased the extent to which Australians are affected by the provisions of international treaties. The domestic significance of treaties was reinforced in 1995, when the High Court handed down its decision in The Minister of State for Immigration and Ethnic Affairs v Ah Hin Teoh (1995). In this case the court blocked a deportation order made against a Malaysian man convicted of drug trafficking.

The court held that the effect of the deportation on the man's children had not been properly considered, and in such cases, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges Australia to give paramount consideration to the best interests of children. The court stated that there was a legitimate expectation that all government decisions would be made in accordance with the terms of international treaties. The court felt that Australia must signal that we regard treaties as effectual and binding agreements.

Another example of the Australian government's implementation of a UN convention is in the area of racial discrimination. In New York in 1966 the UN passed the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and it was ratified in 1975. In the light of this convention, the Labor government of Gough Whitlam passed the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), which made it illegal to use racial criteria for any official purpose, such as hiring or dismissal of employees. This effectively implemented the provisions of the UN convention.

In a similar way, the implementation of the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) led to several legislative milestones in Australia. The convention was signed in New York in 1979 and ratified in 1983. As of the year 2000 there were 165 states party to CEDAW.

The UN created CEDAW as a way of recognising that despite various international human rights conventions already in existence, extensive discrimination against women continues to exist. It is aimed at promote equal rights for women and at improving the status of women by eliminating gender based discrimination. CEDAW recognises that discrimination against women violates the principles of equal rights and is an obstacle to the equal participation of women in political, social, economic, community and cultural life.

Australia's commitment to the full implementation of CEDAW and to the actualisation of the rights of women was reflected in such legislative milestones as the passing of the Sex Discrimination Act of 1984 (Cth) (and its Amendment of 1995), the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Act of 1986 (Cth) and its amendments, and the review of the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act of 1986 (Cth). In administrative terms, the convention led to initiatives such as the establishment of the Office of the Status of Women and the Office of the Sex Discrimination Commissioner.

Australia is a signatory party to other important international conventions which have been implemented to varying degrees in legislation. The issues covered by these conventions - issues such as nuclear energy, climate change and refugees - are broad and complex and change with the political circumstances of any given moment. As such, they are not so simple to implement as, say, the conventions on anti-discrimination or the rights of children.

During the Cold War and afterwards, Australia has been active in signing on to the various nuclear security treaties. Australia is a signatory to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, signed in 1968 and entering into force for Australia in 1973. Australia is also a signatory to the Comprehensive Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) opened for signature in 1996 and coming into force in 1998. We are also a signatory to the Convention on Nuclear Safety, signed in 1994 and entering into force for Australia in 1997.

The United Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees sets out to define who is a refugee, and lays out the rights of individuals who are granted asylum and the responsibilities of nations that grant asylum. The convention also specifies which people do not qualify as refugees, such as war criminals.

Article 1 of the Convention provides the definition of a refugee:
A person who is outside his/her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution.

This convention was passed at a special UN conference in 1951, and was initially intended to apply only to European refugees in the wake of World War II. In 1967, a UN Protocol was approved expanding the convention's scope and removing any geographical and time limits. There are now 145 signatories to either or both the convention and protocol.

Within the refugee context Australia has also joined the UN Convention aimed at strengthening the fight against transnational organised crime and people smuggling. In 2004 Australia ratified the UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime and the Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land Sea and Air. Australia was active in the negotiation of these treaties and is among the first Western countries to ratify them.

Australia has taken what some see as a controversial stance on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto Protocol, an agreement made under the UNFCCC. The countries that ratify this protocol commit to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. They can alternatively engage in emissions trading if they maintain or increase emissions of greenhouse gases. The Kyoto Protocol covers more than 163 countries around the world and over 65 percent of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Notable exceptions include the United States and Australia. The Australian Government, under John Howard, has refused to join the protocol, arguing that it would cost Australians jobs, and that Australia is already doing enough to cut emissions. In 2005, Australia was the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases per capita.

Grey Water in Australia

2006-01-13T00:56:00.000-08:00

Australia is the world’s driest habitable continent and as of late the dams near major cities have begun to dry up. This has caused widespread debate on what can be done, and the most efficient and practical suggestion has been to recycle domestic grey water.

Grey water comes from showers, dishwashers, washing machines, and the like. There is nothing wrong with it that cannot be eliminated using various techniques. Once it’s treated it is quite suitable for use on gardens.

Why are we watching this valuable resource flow down the drains when it can be recycled and save thousands of megalitres of pure water?

Many areas of Australia are on water restrictions, meaning that outdoor hoses are being eliminated, and yet, we are still letting a huge proportion of our water escape without being recycled. While we are still in the clutches of an extremely long drought, we need to take action to save this valuable resource.

There are many ways to convert grey water into water suitable for human consumption. The first and most controversial in Australia is called Reverse Osmosis. This is the finest type of purification that has ever been discovered, and can remove anything up to an ion from a substance.

Reverse Osmosis is the best but unfortunately the most expensive way of recycling grey water and huge recycling plants are in the process of being established to produce water that is fit for human consumption.

The reason that it is controversial is that some places, such as Toowoomba in Queensland have had strong opposition to putting in a plant because of lack of knowledge and ignorance. To see how controversial it can be, pay a visit to Toowoomba Recycled Water – Debating the Issue .

However, most of us are not going to use our recycled grey water for human consumption so we need something that is effective and inexpensive to recycle our grey water.

Fortunately there are many different kinds of store-bought products that can be purchased that will effectively clean grey water to usable levels. Some use sand filtration and pump straight from the laundry to the garden, whereas others take the water into a large tank where it is split between garden watering and flushing the toilet.

You will find some interesting suggestions and ideas on setting up your own recycling system for grey water in a fact sheet on the ABC’s Gardening Australia website.

At a time when Australia is facing unprecedented levels of drought and possibly the worse to come, we are using more and more water than ever before. Now is the time that we need to be making the water we have work harder. In fact we need to make it work twice as hard; first drinking water and again as grey water.

Of course you can go to the expense of treating grey water but it can be used to water gardens and lawns without any treatment and that can save us money. The cost of pure water is going to increase and soon the cost of watering your garden or lawn will become an economic burden on many households

Australia is suffering at the hands of a countrywide drought. The least we can do is recycling the water that we have. If not, and the good rains don’t return then disaster could occur. There is always the possibility of rain, but there is no certainty.

Grey water is the only viable solution that we can start using right now…

Australia and Regional Agreements

2005-12-25T20:56:00.000-08:00

In the period after World War II (WWII), Australia began to act independently in foreign policy. No longer simply following the foreign policy of the British government, Australia began to make treaties for the security of the Asia-Pacific region and look to economic interaction with our Asian neighbours. Through the terms in office of (in particular) Gough Whitlam, Paul Keating and John Howard, Australia has continued to engage with our neighbours and with the global community in general, with special attention given to recent concerns such as terrorism, free trade, integration with Asia and stability in the Asia-Pacific region.

The desire of the Australian government to secure the Asia-Pacific region after the conflict with Japan in WWII led to the making of an agreement with New Zealand in 1944 which dealt with the security and welfare of the people of the independent territories of the Pacific. This is known as the ANZAC Pact. In 1951, Australia, New Zealand, and the United States signed a security treaty known as the ANZUS treaty, which set in place a military alliance binding the three countries. The context of this treaty was the beginning of the Korean War and the US government's desire to make peace with Japan. In the context of the Cold War, China and the Soviet Union were also of concern to the US government. Australia and New Zealand were very reluctant to allow for Japanese rearmament, and the ANZUS pact was accepted by the US as a way of securing the regional power balance in the Pacific.
In the wake of WWII, the Australian government had a renewed interest in tying in the emerging global organisation of the UN to the regional concerns of Australia. Postwar regional relations were marked by the issue of dealing with our Asian neighbours. There was the question of the status and control of Japan after the war, in terms of diplomatic relations, rearmament and reconstruction. The 1940s also saw Australia supporting Indonesian independence during the colonial revolt against the Dutch (1945 to 1949).

In this period Australia acted independently in relations with our Asian neighbours. A significant milestone came in 1950, at the Commonwealth Conference on Foreign Affairs held in Colombo, Sri Lanka. This conference was convened to focus on the needs of Asian nations, and it resulted in the founding of an organisation aimed at promoting collective intergovernmental effort toward the economic and social development of member countries in the Asia-Pacific region. This is known as the Colombo Plan.

The Colombo Plan is intended to promote intergovernmental effort toward the economic and social development of member countries in the Asia-Pacific region. The Colombo Plan encourages developing member countries to become donors themselves and participate in economic and technical cooperation among developing countries. Originally extended from time to time at five-year intervals, in 1980 the members voted to extend the life of the plan indefinitely.

Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Heads of Government (CHOGM) which brings together all the countries of the Commonwealth for biennial meetings. Since many of Australia's neighbours in the Pacific are members of the Commonwealth, these meetings allow for inter-governmental consideration of regional issues as well as issues relevant to the nations of the Commonwealth as a whole.
In January 1989, Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke called for more effective economic cooperation across the Asia Pacific Region, and this led to the establishment of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. The first meeting of APEC was held in Canberra, Australia in 1989, and was chaired by the foreign minister, Gareth Evans. The meeting was attended by ministers from 12 countries and concluded with commitments for future annual meetings in Singapore and South Korea. From this point on, APEC has proven to be a vital forum for regional discussion and the promotion of trade and economic policies along the Pacific Rim.

The APEC forum is intended to improve economic and political ties between member nations. It has ongoing committees on a wide range of issues, from communications to fishing rights. The heads of government of all APEC member states meet annually in the 'APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting', which rotates in location among APEC nations. The APEC meeting is well-known for its tradition of having attending leaders dress in the national costume of the host nation.

Australia also plays a central part as a 'dialogue partner' in relations between developed and developing nations within the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). This includes discussions regarding the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), which is a trade and manufacturing agreement between ASEAN countries. ASEAN has ten dialogue partners, including Australia, China, India, the EU, Japan and the United States. Australia was ASEAN's first dialogue partner, joining in 1974.

The primary goals of the AFTA agreement are to increase ASEAN's competitive edge as a production base in the world market through the elimination, within ASEAN, of tariffs and non-tariff barriers. It also seeks to attract more foreign direct investment to ASEAN.

Australia has strong and friendly relations with the member countries of ASEAN, both individually and collectively. These relations are based on mutual respect and shared interests, and cover a wide range of areas: political; economic and trade ties; security matters; cultural and educational fields; and strong and enduring people-to-people links. The government is committed to the further strengthening of Australia's relations with ASEAN, and has undertaken a wide range of initiatives to achieve this objective.

Australia also has recently signed a Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States. This preferential trade agreement is modelled on the North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which links Canada, the United States and Mexico. NAFTA was launched in January of 1994, and formed the world's largest free trade area.
The Australian-United States FTA was signed in 2004, and came into force on 1 January, 2005. It is intended to offer significantly greater market access for Australian businesses and eliminate technical restrictions to trade. Australia also is a party to the Thailand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (TAFTA), which also entered into force on 1 January 2005; the Singapore-Australia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA); and the Australia New Zealand Closer Economic Relations Trade Agreement (ANZCERTA). ANZCERTA was signed in 1983, building on a series of earlier preferential trade agreements between Australia and New Zealand.

In 2005 Australia joined a new Asia-Pacific partnership on environmental issues. This agreement brings together the United States, China, India, Japan, South Korea and Australia to form the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate. Bringing together these developing and developed regional countries, the partnership is intended to address the challenges of climate change, energy security and air pollution. The partnership aims to deal with these issues in a way that continues to encourage economic development and seeks to reduce poverty in the region.

Chasing Wickets and Wine in the Barossa, South Australia

2005-11-07T07:42:00.000-08:00

If Gatsby had been Aussie, this is where he’d have hung his chapeau. Hop on the nearest Liquor Bus or Wine Train and drink your way through dozens of the world’s finest vineyards and cellar doors. Once your head has begun its swirling dizzy-dance and the Aussie sun has baked you straight through, stumble over to Chateau Tanunda for gourmet cheese, a round of Croquet on the green, and a palate-pleasing array of true blue South Australian wines. Don’t miss the Small Winemaker’s Centre inside this 1890’s estate for a glimpse of the up-and-comers of the Southern Hemisphere grape. If a cheap, but glamorous drunk amidst sprawling vistas is what you hope to achieve, there can be few better places than the Barossa Valley.

Getting Fresh at the Central Market, Adelaide, South Australia

2005-05-03T07:43:00.000-07:00

One glimpse of the pure sensory overload that is Adelaide’s Central Market and all rumours of this as the sleepiest of Australian capitals are soon put to bed. From the first step inside you’re assaulted with a buzzing mass of patrons, drifting from stall to stall as if drawn on scent trails toward hanging gardens of salt-cured meats, aged cheeses, and steam clouds of freshly brewed, freshly roasted coffee. If the aroma doesn’t leave you gobsmacked, the super-saturate rainbow of local, organic produce of every thinkable variety certainly will. Blaze a trail through this maze of edible wonderment, and even step through the other side to Adelaide’s small, but vibrant, Chinatown. Open late on Fridays, this market is a dream date for people-watchers and foodies alike.

Why did Australia go to war against Vietnam?

2005-04-27T01:17:00.000-07:00

The American alliances

Although the post Second World War alliances with America (ANZUS and SEATO) played an important part in Australia going to war, it is not fair to simply write off the decision as Australia blindly following American policy. It is important to remember that for most of the period before full-scale war erupted in Vietnam, it was Australia who was pushing America into further involvement in the region. SEATO was eventually used by the Americans to justify their presence in Vietnam, but it was the Australians who actually tried to invoke SEATO first.

In 1962 when they wanted to stop Indonesian aggression in western New Guinea, they asked America to become involved, but the US had diplomatic commitments with Indonesia as well as Australia and said no. This does not mean that the American alliances were not an important factor in Australia going to war. Australia had made itself essentially dependent on American help in the event of external aggression and that dependence had a price tag of involvement in American foreign policy. The plain and simple fact was that if Australia did not help America now, then America might not come to Australia in her hour of need, if it ever arose. So yes, Australia's relationship with America was an important factor in Australian involvement, but it was not the only one.

Australia had previously committed troops in other countries
Although this did not automatically guarantee that Australia would become involved in Vietnam, the precedents were in place to suggest that they would. Australia's involvement in Vietnam was not an isolated piece of foreign policy. Australians had fought in Korea which was even further away than Vietnam. Korea was not the only precedent for Australian troops becoming involved in the fight against communism. In 1955 they were deployed in Malaya to help the British put down a communist insurrection there.

Fear of communism
As we have already seen, there was a genuine fear of communism in Asia spreading to Australia. The entry of Australia into the Vietnam conflict was the culmination of over 15 years of domestic and foreign policy for successive Australian governments. That can be seen domestically in the attempted banning of the communist party and the anti-communist propaganda that Australians had been subjected to for years. As for foreign policy, Australia had already demonstrated its eagerness to stop the spread of 'monolithic' communism by going to war in Korea.

Geography and the domino effect
This reason is pretty straightforward and is linked to the fear of communism. Geographically, Vietnam is on Australia's doorstep. If South Vietnam were to fall to communism, and as the domino effect theory suggested would happen - other Asian countries like Thailand, Myanmar and Malaya were to follow - then where would Australia be? The example of Indonesia is also significant, as that potential conflict was right on Australia's northern tip. It had a major psychological effect on Australians and left them feeling very alone in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. As the fear of being isolated in the Pacific and surrounded by communist countries had spurred Australia into war in Korea, it now spurred her into war in Vietnam.

Requests for Australian involvement
Late in 1961 when the number of Viet Cong activities started to rise dramatically, the Americans turned to the SEATO treaty to help control the situation in Vietnam. They began to ask the other SEATO countries to send in troops as military advisors. The Menzies government considered the request in November 1961 but did not respond immediately as they were in the middle of an election. By March 1962 the Australians had also received three requests for help from the South Vietnamese government and in May the Australian government announced it would be sending in 30 military advisors to assist with the ongoing training of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam.

Australia was prepared for a war
Psychologically, Australia had been prepared for another war since the conflict in Korea. Compulsory military training and universal conscription had been briefly re-introduced in 1951. The Australian people had been told so often to prepare for war that they all thought it was only a matter of time before they would have to go into battle with the communists. Many people were thinking why wait until it's too late and fight them when they invade our own land - let's go out and meet this threat head on. Much of the Liberal government's foreign policy was formed around this idea of 'forward defence'.

The threat that Australia needed to defend against at the time was communism spreading from North Vietnam into South Vietnam. There was popular support for going to war in South East Asia. Australians had been bombarded with anti-communist propaganda and the threat of communist invasion for so long, that this war was their chance to change the future of Asia. Ironically, the only people who were reticent about sending troops into Vietnam were the commanders of the Australian military, who felt the army was too run down to be sent overseas.

Australia's Stolen Generation

2005-04-23T21:54:00.000-07:00

The removal of Indigenous children from their parents was not a new idea, it had been happening for years on the stations and reserves. The children of white men had often been taken away from their Indigenous mothers after birth and given to a white family. As a specific policy by the authorities, Indigenous children had been removed from their homes since the Aboriginal Protection Board was set up in the 1880s. But the removal policy was definitely stepped up with the introduction of the assimilation policy. By taking the children away from the 'bad influence' of their parents and family it would be easier to make them more 'European', to force them to fit in to white society.

Indigenous children were taken away from their parents for many different reasons but the policy's foundation was essentially a racist one. The white authorities believed that Indigenous parents were unable to look after their children properly and so they were removed. The importance and worth of Indigenous culture was once more completely ignored by the government and those who were supposed to be 'protecting' the Indigenous people. Again, as with the earlier protection policies, many people thought they were doing the right thing by the children when they took them away from the only family they knew. Others had more sinister motives.

For many years Indigenous children who had European ancestry were removed from their parents so that they could be 'socialised' into being 'white'. In the 1920s and 1930s this socialisation was taken a step further by some in Australian society. The Aboriginal Protector in Western Australia A. O. Neville (and others like him) thought that the Indigenous race should be bred into extinction. This was a belief that many people held in the early part of the 20th Century, known as 'eugenics'. It was related to Darwin's theories on evolution - that the stronger race could overcome the weaker through selective breeding. Neville believed that biological assimilation could be achieved by separating children with European ancestry and not letting them marry people of Indigenous ancestry. He said that eventually the European blood would 'overcome' the Indigenous blood and that in a few generations there would be no 'black' characteristics evident. When the horrors of the Eugenics programme in Nazi Germany were revealed, the ideas of Neville and others who believed in similar biological assimilation policies, were no longer seen as acceptable.

By the early part of the 20th century the reserves were overcrowded and were becoming too expensive for the board to maintain. The definition of 'Aboriginal' was narrowed so that children who had more European ancestry than Indigenous, were no longer defined as Indigenous. They, therefore, did not qualify to live on the reserves. In this manner, hundreds of children were able to be taken away from their families. Just because they were not 'Indigenous' enough to live on the reserves, that did not mean the board gave up their control over their lives. They were sent to training homes so they could be assimilated into non-Indigenous culture.

Many families had been moved around so often because of the reserves closing down, that they were living in extreme poverty and were in poor health. This gave the board an excuse to remove the children because of apparent neglect. Again, the differences between the Indigenous and non-Indigenous cultures were not taken into account. The Protection Board could come in and check the cupboards in an Indigenous house. If there was no food in them, then a child could be removed. They did not take into account the fact that a family may be eating fresh food that had been hunted in the bush.

Part of the assimilation policy was to make Aboriginal people more 'white' through education. As on the missions, it was believed that educating the children would mean they would turn away from the 'savage' ways of their parents. Many parents had their children taken away because they were supposedly not educating them properly, yet there were laws in New South Wales that allowed Indigenous children to be excluded from schools if one white parent objected. If they were turned away by the schools what were they supposed to do? How could they educate their children properly? Why would they willingly put their child in a situation where they were going to be discriminated against and treated badly?

Not all the reasons for removal of children were part of the assimilation programme. Quite a few children were removed because they were genuinely in danger. Some children were being abused by clan members because they had white fathers, but many other children who had European ancestry were not abused and they were taken anyway.

Not all children who were taken were 'stolen'. Some of the non-Indigenous fathers thought their children would be better off in a place where they could be raised in a stable white environment, so they sent their children away and paid for their board and education. Some Indigenous parents also believed that they were doing a good thing for their children by sending them away to be educated. They did not realise that by doing that they may never see their children again.

The removal of children was ultimately aimed at destroying the Indigenous race, either through biological or social assimilation. If the children could be raised to think 'white', then they would be better off. European culture and way of life was deemed to be far superior to that of the Indigenous people - they could not possibly look after themselves, never mind children. The idea of improving the welfare and lives of theIndigenous people through better living conditions was never given any real consideration. Instead the authorities believed it was better to remove children from the only home they had ever known and in many cases put them to work. It is these children who were taken who have become known as the 'Stolen Generations'. Not only were they stolen from their families, but they also had their heritage and identity stolen from them.

The Importance of Australian Heritage

2005-04-21T22:31:00.000-07:00

Our heritage is our link to the past. Have you ever looked at your family heritage? Is there a box full of photographs and letters in your attic or at your grandparents' house? Maybe you have a teddy bear that belonged to one of your parents when they were a child. Memories, old photographs, letters, jewellery, anything from the past that you treasure, are part of your heritage. They are important because they can tell you something about where you came from.

All those amazing memories and treasures need to be protected. They need to be preserved, to be kept safe so that future generations can also see those treasures and know where they came from. One day your child could be playing with a toy from your childhood.

People like hearing stories and being reminded of the past and it is good to pass on our memories to the next generation. Does your family have a written family tree? That is a part of your heritage. One day you can add your children onto that family tree and they can see their heritage.

Community and national heritage

It is not just personal heritage that is important to preserve - buildings, gardens, nature sites, statues and paintings can all be part of the heritage of a community or a country. Every country has a heritage. Think of the heritage of Australia. What are the 'treasures' Australia has that are important to protect?

These are all famous examples of Australia's national heritage. Can you think of something in your community that could be an example of its heritage? Is your school in an older building? What about the local cemetery - there may be graves there from two centuries ago.

Heritage can be found all around us - even in the natural world. It is not just man-made things that are a part of our heritage, Uluru is a good example of this, but there are others. Mountain ranges, coral reefs and park and bush land are also areas that have been declared heritage sites.

The Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975 (Cth) (The Act) established the Australian Heritage Commission. It protects all the sites in Australia that are thought to be of national cultural and natural value, these are called National Estate sites. Each State also has its own heritage laws that protect and preserve these areas for future generations. The Act has since been updated with the passing of the Australian Heritage Council Act 2003 (Cth).

Lost heritage

Unfortunately many of the Aboriginal People in Australia have lost a lot of their heritage. Many of their traditional languages, beliefs and customs have died out over the last 200 years. For years they had their lands stolen from them and even their children were taken away. They have lost a large part of their heritage and as a result many Indigenous people have no contact with their history.

Some Jewish people lost their entire family during the Holocaust in Nazi Germany. Other Jewish families had to flee their homeland with nothing but the clothes they were wearing. They had to leave all their family heirlooms behind them. Other refugees, from countries like Cambodia and Laos have also suffered in the same way.

Our heritage helps us discover who and why we are. Imagine how hard it must be for those people who grow up with no real sense of a family history or heritage.

Women in Australia Today

2005-04-06T20:02:00.000-07:00

The women's liberation movement brought about huge changes for women in Australian society. Throughout the 1970s, 1980s and to a lesser extent the 1990s many initiatives were put in place in the areas of health, work, law, education and welfare that attempted to redress the imbalance between men's and women's power and opportunity. Women slowly began to infiltrate areas of power that had hitherto been closed to them and some attempted to use this power for the benefit of women in general.

Similar changes took place in other countries around the world, in particular in Europe, the United Kingdom and the United States. The United Nations declared 1975 International Women's Year and marked it as the start of the International Decade for Women. A world conference on women's issues was held in Mexico City.

Health
Gradually women had greater access to contraception and abortion. Women's health clinics were opened up around the country, one of the first of which was the Planned Parenthood Clinic that opened in Melbourne in 1974. These measures allowed women greater control over reproduction, which in turn afforded them greater ability to plan their families, work and study.

Half-way houses and shelters for women escaping violence in the home also appeared in Sydney and Melbourne in 1974. The number of these expanded rapidly over the next two decades. By the early 1990s there were around 200 such facilities throughout Australia.

Work
Work had been the focus of much women's activism for nearly a century by the time the women's liberation movement took it up as an issue. Lack of equality remained in the workplace. In 1969 the Commonwealth Arbitration Commission ruled that women should receive equal pay for work of equal value by 1972. In 1975 the federal government passed the Federal Childcare Act which provided government funding of childcare for working mothers.

The areas of work available to women expended also. Women began to have more of a presence in professions like law, medicine and politics. Some even took up jobs in traditionally male-dominated areas like the police force. Battles were fought and won by individual women over their rights to become pilots and stevedores.

Over time more and more women were appointed to corporate boards, government bodies and high positions within unions and political parties. In the 1980s and 1990s women became State premiers, judges and presidents of powerful groups like the Australian Medical Association.

Law and policy
Part of the reason women were able to attain these positions was through various laws and policies that put in place 'affirmative action' or 'equal opportunity' measures. The purpose of these measures was to remove obstacles to women attaining these positions. Because beliefs about women's lack of capability were so ingrained in society, women found that often they were not given positions because men going for the same position were automatically considered more competent. So some organisations put in place quota systems whereby a certain percentage of their employees, officials or board members had to be women. These and similar rules were called 'affirmative action'.

South Australia put these measures into legislation in 1975 with its Sex Discrimination Act. The federal government followed this initiative with a similar Act in 1984 and the Equal Opportunity Act of 1986.
Other laws provided women with welfare payments to help them support children on their own. This and other measures helped women to lead lives independently of men and made it easier for them to disentangle themselves from unhappy marriages. Laws allowed for fairer distribution of assets after a marriage breakdown and for no-fault divorce, which meant that neither partner had to prove serious wrongdoing by the other in order to be granted a divorce.

There was also greater awareness of domestic violence and rape in marriage. Previously there had been an attitude that violence that happened in the home was a private matter in which police and courts had no interest. Some beliefs also held that a man could treat his wife and children however he wanted to because they 'belonged' to him.

Education
Many types of change took place in the area of education. As mentioned in the last chapter, the content of education itself changed as women tried to refocus teaching about gender roles through the study of books, history and society in general. Sex education gradually came to be taught in schools as well, giving girls greater awareness about their reproductive choices for the future.

Girls were encouraged to extend their interests at school and university and to study science, sport and other areas which had previously been considered of more interest to male students. They were also encouraged to continue further with their studies. By 1997, 54 percent of all higher education students were female.
In addition, many education programmes were put in place in schools, workplaces and the media about women's rights. Issues like domestic violence, sexual harassment and women's rights at work became the subjects of widespread government campaigns.

Governments set up groups, councils and consultancy positions to investigate women's issues. The Women's Advisory Council, the Office of the Status of Women and the Women's Affairs Section in the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet were examples of these.

Conclusion
These are just some of the examples of the many successes of the women's liberation movement. Many still exist today although some have been renamed and reshaped. Even very traditional organisations such as churches have changed their attitudes towards women, for example the Anglican Church in Melbourne allowed women to be ordained as priests in the mid 1980s.

All these measures helped to break down traditional ideas about what women could or could not do. It made women more visible in public life and enabled them to lead lives that were much closer to men's lives in terms of freedom and choice.

Australian Women and “the Vote”

2005-04-05T20:00:00.000-07:00

From 1855, the British Parliament began establishing parliaments in each of her colonies of Australia. In order to achieve a truly democratic parliament, however, the right to vote had to be granted. Throughout the second half of the 19th century each separate colony began to enfranchise certain male persons. South Australia became the first colony in 1856 to introduce (manhood) suffrage to non-Indigenous men over 21 years of age who had lived in the colony for six months and possessed land which was of a certain worth. In all colonies except Tasmania, men who satisfied the criteria were able to vote before a single woman was entitled to that same right.

Early beginnings and campaigns
Women reacted by organising women's suffrage (right to vote) campaigns during the last few decades of the 19th century. These women were referred to as 'suffragettes'. In 1884 the first Australian organisation to campaign for a woman's right to vote was established in Melbourne. The Victorian Women's Suffrage Society was founded by Henrietta Dugdale and Annie Lowe. They led a number of women who were victims of abuse from their husbands, or who simply believed that women should be respected and not controlled.
Towards the end of the 1880s, several suffrage groups had been established in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Adelaide. In 1894, the United Council for Women's Suffrage united 32 suffragist organisations, making it the first national women's suffrage group. They trained women speakers to address meetings and educated the public about a woman's right to stand for parliament and to vote. They held a number of petitions and marches. It was thought that if they could generate enough of a response then the men could see that all women wanted to obtain the vote, not just those women who identified themselves as suffragettes.

The arguments behind women's suffrage
Suffragettes believed that they should be able to access equality in the political arena when they had to adhere to the same rules and laws which applied to men. Women were not exempt from paying taxes and therefore, believed that they should not be prevented from playing a role in making the laws. They also argued that the female perspective which, in their view, embodied caring and moral qualities, would provide vital social reforms which would ensure that women, children and the poor would be protected.

Suffragettes came up against opposition in their campaign for equal voting rights, from both men and women. Many argued that the political and economic realms were unsuitable for women. It was suggested that they were too heavily influenced by their emotions, which prevented them from asserting any intellectual decisiveness. There was also concern about the implications for women's home life. Such gross generalisations indicated the lack of cogency in the reasoning of the opponents of women's suffrage.

The vote for Australian women
In 1893, New Zealand became the first nation in the world to allow their adult women to be entitled to vote. A year later, South Australia became the first colony in Australia to grant their female citizens over the age of 21, the right to vote and also to stand for election.

Women were granted the right to vote in the Australian colonies much earlier than in Britain and the United States. It has been suggested the one of the reasons for this was that in those countries, the educated, single women were keen to leave the home and infiltrate the man's world of politics. Whereas in the colonies, most suffragettes wanted the right to vote to enable them to nominate a government which they believed would ensure that the laws were fair. They were not as interested in becoming politicians. Many men figured that politics would not change too much if women were given the vote since the social hierarchy which placed women in the home, would remain unchanged.

The right for women to stand for election in South Australia was added as an amendment to the bill. It was added by a councillor who thought that the seemingly-radical notion would discourage even the parliamentary members in strongest support of women's suffrage, from passing the bill altogether. The councillor underestimated the amount of support behind women in South Australia and the bill was passed.
The first election that South Australian women voted in was the 1896 Legislative Council election in which they enrolled in their masses. While women were able to exercise their voting rights almost straight away, it took more than six decades before they were elected into parliament. In 1959, Joyce Steele joined the House of Assembly and Jessie Cooper was made a member of the Legislative Council, making history by becoming the first women elected to South Australia's parliament.

In 1901, the six colonies were federated to become the Commonwealth of Australia. When parliament was deciding in 1902 who should be allowed to vote, there was a strong belief that all women should be able to vote in federal elections. This was owing to the fact that South Australian and Western Australian women already had the vote in their colonies prior to Federation. It seemed unjust that women could be entitled to a State vote, but not a federal one. It resulted in all Australian women (except for Indigenous Australians and those of Asian, African and Pacific Islander descent) over the age of 21 years securing a federal vote. Ironically, at this time the majority of women were still not able to vote at State level. Victoria did not grant women the right to vote until 1908.

Multiculturalism in Australia

2005-04-04T19:57:00.000-07:00

Even though by far the largest groups of immigrants to Australia are and always have been from other Anglo-Saxon cultures (Britain, Ireland and New Zealand), the influx of other cultures to Australia has made ours a truly multicultural society. The effects of multiculturalism can be found in the following areas, among others.

Food
Australian supermarkets, grocery stores, markets, delicatessens, cafes, restaurants and take-away stores offer an enormous variety of foods from around the world. Not only have many of these foods been incorporated into the mainstream Australian diet but they have also become the basis for much of Australia's social life.
Many Australians of all cultural backgrounds can use chopsticks and enjoy the al-fresco dining introduced by Italian immigrants. Places to eat, including take-away stores and supermarkets sometimes offer kosher or Halal food.

Art and architecture
Trade, organisations and government
Having people in our midst who speak other languages and understand other cultures has helped business and trade in Australia. They are able to tap into others of their community here and help open up markets in other countries overseas.

There are many cultural organisations in Australia that help to support different communities. Some of them are social places, some provide services and some are multi-ethnic. Some service a particular cultural community while others seek to bring communities together. Among these organisations are community radio and television stations.

There are many non-English newspapers around the country too. Governments provide documents and signage in multiple languages and have interpreting services for non-English speakers. The federal government has set up a Council for Multicultural Australia, which follows on from previous organisations such as the Office of Multicultural Affairs. Through this multiculturalism can have some influence on government policy and other public institutions.

People and language
Australians are becoming more and more diverse as a people. More than 40 per cent of Australians were born overseas or have at least one parent who was born elsewhere. There are people from about 200 countries who speak many different languages. We are now a people of many colours, accents and styles of dress and appearance.

This diversity continually evolves as changing world situations bring new communities to the country. For example, a decade ago it was rare to see someone of black African heritage in Adelaide. These days, however, there is a growing Sudanese community.

With these various cultures come diverse religions and customs. Sometimes other Australians take part in these, particularly through cultural festivals. Some of these religions, particularly Buddhism and Islam, have been taken up by people in the broader Australian community.

Within Australia's cities are cultural enclaves, groups of suburbs where lots of people from particular cultures live. Some of these become popular tourist spots, especially Chinatown (in each capital city) and Italian café strips.

Because mainstream Australian society has become accustomed to new languages, religions and cultural practices it has become more tolerant than it was before World War II. There is greater understanding of other parts of the world and more tolerance of different lifestyles. Australia now has many subcultures, particularly in the larger cities.

Conclusion
Through these developments it is clear that multiculturalism has had some effect on many aspects of daily life: the food we eat, our social lives, the buildings around us, the people we associate with, the governments that govern us and, most importantly, our own outlook on the world.

Australian Women's jobs Opposition

2005-04-03T19:56:00.000-07:00

There was strong opposition to women working in industry. The government ran campaigns to encourage women to move into the workforce.

However, newspapers, the Catholic Church, male-dominated trade unions and working men formed strong opposition to the new roles being assumed by women. They were concerned that women would abuse their newfound freedoms and take men's jobs.

In November 1940, employers of women in the metal industry applied to the arbitration court for a change of the award wage due to a state of 'national emergency'. The unions vehemently opposed the changes, fearing that further encouragement for women to work would signal a reversal of gender roles.

The arbitration court ruled that a rise in wages be limited only to women employed in war work. It was clear that women had to surrender their jobs when the men returned to Australia.

Women's roles in industry and munitions work were a valuable contribution to Australia's war effort and economy during World War II. Unfortunately, the social changes that could have led to more equality between men and women in the workforce went unexploited.

Australian Women's Working conditions

2005-04-02T19:55:00.000-08:00

Women enjoyed the freedoms that accompanied their new jobs. Unfortunately, the majority of jobs were tiring and repetitive. Factory work was often undemanding, assembly line-style work.

Few women had experience working in factories. Facilities were poor. In one munitions factory, 20 women shared one washbasin. Cockroaches plagued the lockers and washrooms.

In a meatworks factory, water that was used to clean benches after animal carcasses had been cut and cleaned would flood the factory floor and reach as high as women's ankles. As women wore only ordinary shoes, the amount of dirty water on the floor bred bacteria and was a constant health risk.

Women employed in textile mills had equally dangerous working conditions. Dust and fluff from threads of fabric used in production were inhaled. Although fluff hardly seems life-threatening, it caused severe damage to women's lungs in the long term.

Working in munitions factories was often hot and noisy. Women did not wear much protective equipment. Materials used in production often caused serious headaches and health troubles. There was also the inherent danger of operating heavy machinery and handling explosives. There were many accidents and injuries.

Edna Macdonald described the situation, 'There were some very bad accidents - they didn't have any guards on the machines and I saw a women have half her hair dragged out with a drill, she happened to lean over and it happened in a few seconds. Of course that was the normal thing in those days, they didn't look after the worker at all.'

Women worked long hours in factories and employers had little consideration for their lives outside of work. Women did not receive payment for dependents and children. They were not granted leave to care for young children and there were no child care facilities at the factories.

This lack of consideration for women's duties with their families and households led to a fairly high rate of absenteeism. Many women were forced to take time from work due to fatigue, ill health caused by poor working conditions, and inconvenient working hours.

Australian Women's jobs

2005-04-01T19:54:00.000-08:00

The concern for the Directorate of Manpower was that munitions factories and industries relating to the war effort were at full working capacity to fulfil the increasing demand from the War. As more men were being drawn into military service, there was a shortage of workers for munitions factories.

Mary Miller was a union representative at a munitions factory in Adelaide. She said,

'the women who did come in from their homes, who'd never been in industry of any sort, they were marvellous - some were very young but some were grandmas. And there was a feeling that you were contributing, you were part of the war effort, and that was important.

And personally, sad as it was, most of us quite enjoyed the war - the conditions of working and so on. It was a happy war to some extent for those who were working in munitions and factories except, of course, if you had the sadness of losing someone.'

Women were introduced into traditionally male jobs in factories, activities ranging from munitions production to work in steel mills, production of planes to provisions and clothing for the troops.

The number of munitions factories increased from nine to 20 factories between 1939 and 1941. They were built in Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide. Factories built in rural towns saw the growth of cities within months, such as Orange and Hay in New South Wales.

Married and single women were encouraged by the government to seek employment in these factories. There were factories which manufactured bullets, machine gun belts, aeroplane and mechanical parts.

Edna Macdonald was a young woman working in Melbourne,

'I decided to go to the Footscray ammunition factory. I worked at Myers for four years as a salesgirl, and one thing that attracted me was the money. I was receiving 26 shillings a week at Myers, working from 9 to 6, four days a week, 9 to 9 on Friday, and 9 to 1 on Saturday, and when I went to the ammunition factory my salary was 2 pounds, 1s, 6d which was marvellous.

And people started to flock in, they were employing by the hundred every week and we had all types of people, sports teachers, prostitutes, you name it, they accepted anyone and it was absolutely packed to the hilt. We were making small arms - 7.2 and 9 mm - and it was horrifying for the first few weeks.'

Women were also used in the transport industry, driving trucks and taxis, acting as porters and conductors for trains and trams. Traditional administrative roles as clerical workers, typists, secretaries and teaching jobs were readily available to women.

Australian Women in Industry

2005-03-31T19:53:00.000-08:00

By April 1941, it became apparent that Australia's workforce was diminishing. As more Australian men enlisted for the military, there was a drain on the labour force. Non-essential industrial production was cut down and the labour forces employed in these industries were redirected by the Directorate of Manpower to military factories.

Shortages of items not related to war, such as food products and clothing, forced the government to introduce rationing. The Directorate of Manpower needed to find another source of labour and turned to women.

The number of women employed in industry between 1939 and 1943 exploded from 1000 to 145 000. The total number of women employed in various jobs in the Australian workforce numbered over 800 000.

Women found employment in traditionally male jobs but were often only being paid a fraction of a man's wage. Attempts to remedy the situation ended in defeat as women were repeatedly opposed by the male-dominated unions and the government, afraid that women would expect equal treatment after the War.

The huge increase in the employment of women in World War II was a significant social change, but it was not matched by a change in government attitude towards women. Wages were not changed and it was made clear that women were expected to return to their traditional roles when the War ended.

Women's Australian Auxiliary Air Force (WAAAF)

2005-03-30T19:48:00.000-08:00

The Australian air force also employed women. WAAAF membership numbered over 16 000 women by mid-1943 and by 1945 it had 18 000 members.

Single women joined the services and worked as telegraphists, signallers, decoders, drivers, mechanics, clerks. Women in WAAAF were not paid as much as men and often performed challenging work that required extensive technical training. Their efforts were vital to the RAAF campaigns.

Women operated within the communications network in Australia and abroad, but also performed menial tasks, such as acting as domestic servants in officers clubs.

By early 1945, 4000 women were working in signals and communications, 3000 as cooks and domestic servants, and 1500 women worked as mechanics on aircraft in other technical support jobs and as aircraft ground staff.

June Stone joined the WAAF:
'I was nineteen. (I joined) for the same reason the boys wanted to join up: you felt that you had to do something for your country. It was something entirely different and I was young. Women were stepping into these roles simply because we were a small country, they needed so many, they were committed to send so many of the young men away and the only way to handle everything was to bring the women in.

When we first joined up, uniforms didn't exist as such because they hadn't been able to plan everything, and it was a bit makeshift at times…I came from a home where my mother did practically everything for me. I went into Bankstown camp and we were the first of the WAAF in New South Wales.

Now just imagine coming from a home where you never cleaned anything, your main job was to mend your stockings, and to find out that you had to clean everything you used… Believe me, that was a culture shock!

Very early in the piece there were some servicemen who rather resented us being there but I think in the main most of the men accepted us, they couldn't have handled it without us or a lot of the men wouldn't have been sent overseas. So we were very necessary.'

Although women dreamed of service overseas with the armed forces, real war work was seldom like the recruiting poster pictures. Women were not paid the same rates as men for their time spent in the armed forces.

They were also constantly reminded that their service was only needed as long as men were needed to fight on the front lines. Once the War was over, men would return to their usual positions, and so women were expected to do the same.

Women's Royal Australian Naval Service - WRANS

2005-03-29T19:48:00.000-08:00

Women were also able to join a branch of the navy. The Naval Board strongly opposed the enlistment of women and saw that no women served on a naval vessel. The shortage of manpower facing the armed services forced the navy to employ women in subsidiary roles.

Initially, women's activities in the naval services were limited to only 14 women who had training as wireless telegraphists. These women were employed by the navy in April 1941. The WRANS was officially established in 1942. Throughout the War the number of women engaged in the WRANS reached 2500.

Women carried out educational work, interpretation, signalling and decoding, administration and office work, driving, and cooking.

An outstanding member of WRANS was Ruby Boye who operated as a coastwatcher in the Solomon Islands in the Pacific behind Japanese lines. She reported on important Japanese movements to the Allies, but lived in constant danger of capture.

Australian Women's Army Service - AWAS

2005-03-28T19:47:00.000-08:00

The largest of the women's paramilitary services was the Australian Women's Army Service (AWAS). This functioned not as a volunteer organisation but as a branch of the army. Women were trained to fill transport, communications, and maintenance roles.

By August 1942 there were 5000 members, by January 1944, 20 023. Total enlistment for the duration of World War II for AWAS was 31 000.

Thelma Long was one of the thousands of women who enlisted for service with the AWAS:

'I joined the Red Cross as a transport driver but when my husband went into the forces, I was free to do something which totally took my time, so I joined the AWAS. We were replacing the fit males… freeing them to go ahead and volunteer for service in the fighting units, and the three women's services… were all formed along those lines, to replace men where possible and allow them to go and fight…

The women who were going into the services were mainly doing it because they wanted to do a job, they wanted to help the war effort, they wanted to help their country.'

Women between the ages of 18 and 45 years old were recruited in 1941. Training was rigorous and designed to enable women to fight in battles should the need arise. Preference was given to women with office skills, radio operation, and Morse code experience.

Women's duties in the AWAS were usually limited to base camps as clerks, typists, cooks, and truck drivers. In 1945, a contingent was sent to support the troops in the Pacific and European theatres.

Australian Women's paramilitary organisations in the early war

2005-03-27T19:46:00.000-08:00

The outbreak of the war was accompanied by a rush of women volunteering for paramilitary organisations.
The Women's Transport Corps taught women to drive trucks and large lorries, ambulances, motorcycles and cars. Their intention was to assist any organisation in Sydney that needed drivers. Although the government refused the assistance of the Women's Transport Corps, soon various companies and organisations in Sydney enlisted the women's skills to drive soldiers and deliver goods.

The Women's Emergency Signalling Corps trained 300 Sydney women in Morse code to replace men operating in post offices and other communication hubs. Although the women undertook intensive training, they found their assistance unwanted.

A Women's Flying Club, with over 300 members, was also established in Sydney. The aim of the club was to train women to take over men's jobs in the air force, should the need arise. These pioneering women learned various aspects of aircraft maintenance and some even learned to pilot light aircraft. Women's efforts were ridiculed by men who claimed they were simply 'playing soldiers'.

Paramilitary organisations were co-ordinated by the Women's Australian National Services (WANS), formed by Lady Wakehurst of Sydney. Women were trained in drill, physical exercise, administering first aid, nursing and air raid precautions.

Once basic training was completed, women could specialise in army intelligence, field telephone operation, signalling and radio service, cooking, map reading, driving, rifle shooting, and mechanics. The WANS was eventually absorbed by the Australian Women's Army Service - AWAS.

Museums in Australia

2005-03-27T02:41:00.000-08:00

There are thousands of museums all over Australia, ranging from the grand and famous to the small and quirky. Whatever your interests, you're virtually guaranteed to find a museum that will capture your attention and imagination – you could easily spend an entire tour of the country solely visiting museums, and there'd still be plenty left unseen by the time you'd finished!

The National Museum of Australia is a good place to start, as one of the country's major museums. Established in Canberra in 1980, the building itself was the first of its kind. Its post-modern architecture comprises several individual buildings that are pieced together in the style of a jigsaw puzzle; a break away from the traditional museum design, the structure is a reflection of the diversity of the collection within. Perhaps most remarkable is the giant loop situated at the entrance, which is actually the most visible part of the Urulu line. Inside, the museum is an excellent and all-encompassing exploration of the history of Australia and its people, and has quickly gained an international reputation as an innovative and important museum. With five permanent galleries and vast collections profiling 50,000 years of heritage, it is well worth a visit for anyone who wishes to gain some insight into Australian history and culture.

The Powerhouse Museum in Sydney's Darling Harbour is another venue that is extremely popular with locals and tourists alike. Its collection totals almost 400,000 objects, contained in dozens of exhibitions (including 22 permanent ones). The Powerhouse Museum is renowned for its educational values, and its focus on modern technology and interactive features like touch screen computers makes it a great place to take the kids, who'll love the exhibits and displays on space exploration and science themes. The museum is part of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, which also incorporates the Powerhouse Discovery Centre and Sydney Observatory.

The main museum for the state of Western Australia is the Western Australia Museum in Northbridge, Perth, where visitors with an interest in Australian wildlife will enjoy the environmental focus (including a detailed look at Australian mammals, marine life, and aborigines, to name a few). In the southeast, there are literally hundreds of museums in Victoria, ranging from historic homes to science centres. The Melbourne Museum and the Melbourne Planetarium are both excellent, and worth a visit – or for something different, check out Old Melbourne Gaol, where you can see the former 'home' of some of Australia's most notorious historical characters and even have your own personal “arrest and trial” experience if you wish!

Wherever you go in Australia, you'll find plenty of museums to choose from, on a wide variety of themes. It's one of the best ways to experience and learn about the rich and vibrant culture and history of this fascinating country.

Australian Women in the Armed Forces

2005-03-26T19:45:00.000-08:00

Women made valuable contributions to the war effort on the home front in industry and volunteer organisations. World War II also saw the entry of women into military operations. Women were used in branches of the Australian army, air force and navy.

Although women were not engaged in direct fighting, they still performed important support roles for the military and worked in areas that were close to fighting and danger.

Around 78 000 women enlisted in the various services and 6000 women were posted overseas for service with the Australian army forces during the War. Service in the armed forces was another opportunity to experience life outside the household in World War II.

Despite the adventure promised by recruitment posters, the reality for women serving in the armed forces was far less glorious, often operating in base camps in menial jobs ranging from cooking to domestic service.

Australian Women in WWII

2005-03-25T19:43:00.000-08:00

Accompanying the critical shortage of manpower was the rationing of essential goods, such as clothing and food. Australia's entire economy became focused on producing items needed for war.

As workers were directed away from non-essential and civilian industries towards war-related factories, the production of civilian goods also diminished. Rationing was another form of control used by the government to direct Australian money to the war effort.

Rationing

Rationing is assigning people a fixed allowance of essential and non-essential goods. It was introduced in Australia as a form of economic control to curtail Australian expenditure.
It was intended as a way in which Australians could contribute to the war effort through communal sacrifice. Rationing was supported by most Australians because it ensured that everyone would be able to access essential items.

Australia did not suffer under rationing as did Britain and other countries in Europe. Few people ever went without essential items. Most Australians were able to obtain a fair share of essential item regardless of income.

There were, however, restrictions on sporting events, non-essential travel and clothing. There were also compulsory blackouts (when all the lights in a building were turned off at night) so that enemy planes could not see cities or towns and bomb them.

Rationing in Australia caused more inconvenience than genuine hardship. Australians seemed unwilling to part with their creature comforts to support the war effort.

Between 1939 and 1941, government control and rationing were not strictly imposed in Australia. The War seemed remote and there was no sense of urgency or common purpose to assist in the war effort yet.

There was a fear of scarcity before rationing was introduced that caused hysteria among the Australian population. There was once a rumour of a match shortage. Thousands of people purchased millions of matches to ensure that they would not go without.

John Dedman, then Minister for War Organisation of Industry, announced that clothing rationing would be introduced. Sales of clothing shops would be restricted to 75% for 1941 and once the shop had reached its quota of sales for the day, sales had to be stopped for the day. Mass hysteria gripped the women of Australia as they rushed to the shops to buy clothes.

There were many administrative problems that the government had to solve before instituting rationing and its introduction was delayed for two months. Australia followed British procedures for the introduction of rationing.

Ration books and coupons were printed and were organised to be distributed. All shops were prepared for the change from a cash to a coupon economy. Each Australian citizen received a ration book with 112 coupons. Purchasable items had a coupon value, for example, a man's suit for 38 coupons, whereas a pair of socks cost 4.

At the end of the year, used coupon booklets were exchanged for new ones.
People had to plan their expenses for the year to avoid spending all their coupons before the end of the year. Once the coupon booklet was spent, it was a year-long wait for the next one to be issued. This proved easy for men, but more difficult for women and families with growing children.

Clothing rations were introduced in mid-June 1942.

Rationed items

Some goods were in short supply once the War began. There was an extreme shortage of petrol which led to strict rationing. Rationing ensured that all Australians would be able to access some supply of petrol when it was needed.
Tea was also rationed early in the War. Supply was limited after Japan occupied Malaya, the Dutch East Indies and Java - the prime tea producers for Australia. Compared with today, Australians were avid tea-drinkers, having tea with all meals and several extra cups throughout the day and night.

Since April 1942, all Australians over the age of nine were required to register with a tea supplier, such as a corner store, and receive one ounce of tea per week, which had to be purchased fortnightly or monthly.

The tea rationing caused great inconvenience for Australians as it was a cultural food. Concessions were made for the aged and outback populations for whom tea was safer to drink than water.

In August 1942, sugar was added to the ration list. Every Australian civilian was allocated half a kilogram of sugar per week. The effect was unexpected - Australians found the sugar rations an awful hardship. Australians had a sweet tooth and enjoyed their sweets, jams and puddings.

In June 1943, butter was rationed to eight ounces a week. In 1944, it fell to a meagre six ounces. Australians complained bitterly about the lack of butter, a staple ingredient in much Australian cooking.

In January 1944, the government introduced meat rationing. The government intended to export more meat to the United Kingdom. It was difficult for the rationing department to establish a clear value on meat for the coupons. Sausages were made of many different kinds of meat, poultry and fish didn't classify as meat. Rabbit and the off-cuts of meat went coupon-free.

It was decided that Australian adults could live on 2.2 pounds of meat a week. The ration of meat included beef, lamb, veal and mutton. Purchasing the meat from the butcher was another complicated affair.

Other items that were rationed included margarine, coffee, rice, prunes, potatoes, and many fresh fruits and vegetables. Furniture, fountain pens, even facial tissues were taken away.

Rationing did not protect Australia from critical shortages. In June 1943, milk and eggs were in short supply. In 1942, there was a fuel shortage in Melbourne. 200 000 of the 270 000 private dwellings relied on firewood for heating, cooking and washing.

Manpower restrictions limited the number of timber collectors - firewood was rationed to 100 lots a week. People turned to gas to supply their heat but this further depleted an already-scarce commodity. Rationing restrictions were reinforced.

The Austerity Campaign

By mid-1942, Prime Minister Curtin sought to encourage people to more willingly volunteer to make sacrifices and to go without.

The 'Austerity Campaign' (austerity meant going without luxury items) involved living as simple a life as possible in order for the government to utilise your saved income and help promote the war economy.

War was an 'All-In Effort' - all Australians were in it together with no distinctions between soldier, mother, or factory worker. 'Austerity calls for a pledge by the Australian people to strip every selfish, comfortable habit, every luxurious impulse, every act, word, or deed, that retards the victory march.'Australians fell into line with the Austerity Campaign.

People were told to:

Smoke less - burn less money.
Drink less - satisfy a need not a habit.
Plan meals for their food value.
Give up cosmetics - it's smart to be natural.
The message was 'Save and Save Australia'.

The Austerity Campaign was launched alongside the Austerity Loan plans. The government planned to save 100 million pounds. The war cost Australia up to 50 000 pounds an hour. The government promoted saving money by promoting competition between Australian States. Australians were inspired to save their money and contribute to the War Loans. Many Australians eagerly participated in the scheme.

Australians accepted the government changes and lived under the regime of rationing for the duration of the War. Post-War Australia saw a return to pre-war spending habits and supply

Australian Women's Role in the War and the Workforce

2005-03-22T19:41:00.000-08:00

When women moved into the paid workforce they left the home, the traditional realm of women's activities. So grew the separation between home and work.

The War provided women with the opportunity to depart from their traditional roles into new and challenging jobs usually occupied by men. World War I resulted in a particularly high proportion of women, both single and married, in jobs outside the home.

With the end of the War and the return of the soldiers to the workforce, women were not ousted from their jobs as they worked as efficiently as men and were paid less. In 1928, the average male wage was £10 40s (shilling) a day whereas the average female wage was £8 80s. Employers found few incentives to employ men once a woman had been employed.

The occupations taken by women included factory and domestic work, nursing, teaching, clerical, secretarial and typing in offices, and shop assisting. Although women did complete some vocational training courses, university studies and higher education were still largely limited to men.

It was during the 1920s that women appeared on the political scene. Politician Ms M. Preston Stanley wrote a column in The Sydney Daily Telegraph called 'A Woman to Women'. She openly confronted male arrogance and encouraged women towards independence, writing, 'Adam is a notoriously egocentric fellow who, with some honourable exceptions, believes that the universe was made for him and his sons, and that Eve and her daughters are people of a lesser growth, with a lower destiny'.

In March 1921, Edith Cowan of Western Australia was the first woman elected to an Australian parliament. Her portrait is on the Australian fifty dollar bill.
What little pay women did receive for their work and what jobs women could acquire in the workforce gave them enough financial independence to become more confident in social and personal relationships.

The 1920s brought a new set of social values and norms. The restrictions of the War years were cast aside in favour of new freedoms. Emboldened by her invasion of the male-dominated workplace, women, with little encouragement, turned to fashion to express themselves. The women of the 1920s were called 'flappers'. They cut their hair short in the 'Eton style'. Dresses were lighter and brighter, and backless dresses received special attention. Skirt lengths were shortened to knee-length revealing enough leg to be controversial. And the effect of leg was exploited; appearing nude or covered by a tight-fitting seamed stocking. The effect on public opinion was like the navel-baring trend of pop stars such as Britney Spears in the late 1990s.

Make-up and lipstick found their way onto women's faces. Women also smoked cigarettes, drank alcohol, swore and expressed well-informed opinions on all topics of the day among men in public, challenging the social norm. Women were even going to the beach in 'revealing' bathing costumes. An appreciation of the female form received national attention when in 1926 the first Miss Australia Quest was held. The winner was 19-year-old Beryl Mills from Geraldton, Western Australia.
Not all Australians fully appreciated the assertive 1920s woman. The older generation, who were called 'wowsers', thought new fashions and attitudes were sinful.

Taken from the Freeman's Journal published in Ireland in March 1925, the disgust at the 'modern' lack of morals is clear:
'Modern ideas, modern dress, modern plays, motion pictures, modern conversation and many other modern dangers seems to be sapping the purity of mind of our girlhood... a generation ago the lowest of the slum frequenting would be ashamed to be seen smoking in public, yet today even some Catholic and convent- bred girls have no compunction about a 'whiff in public'. Who a generation ago had ever seen a girl or woman taking intoxicating liquors?'

A short limerick published in the New Triad in Sydney in July 1928 echoes a similar sentiment:
'Half an inch, half an inch, half an inch shorter,
The skirts are the same for mother and daughter,
When the wind blows each of them shows,
Half an inch, half an inch, more than she oughter'

By comparison with other countries, Australian women of the 1920s enjoyed more freedoms, privileges and rights. For example, in Britain it was only in 1928 that women were awarded the right to vote in national elections whereas Australian women had been voting in federal elections in 1901.

Women were expressing themselves in new fashions and adopting new trends but most of society and politics were still dominated by men. Women wore shorter skirts but still bound their chests tightly to create a more masculine appearance. It is important to recognise that although women in the 1920s enjoyed some newfound freedoms, their roles in society were not completely independent from their male counterparts.

And then there was the electric iron. Innovations made in domestic technology reduced the time-consuming labour involved in cleaning and maintaining a household. Hot water was now available from taps, the gas stove became common, carpets and vacuum cleaners appeared in houses, the refrigerator ensured fresh food would stay fresh and the washing machine and electric iron made cleaning and pressing clothes an easier process.

With the emergence of new products into the world market came a barrage of advertising. Targeting women, advertisers redefined the role of women in the household. Although many women were engaged in the workforce, there appeared the nagging and constant reminder of her place in the home, doing the housework with all her new appliances. Nevertheless, comic strips such as 'Ginger Meggs' and 'The Potts' joked about the matriarchal control which wives and mothers imposed on men in the home.

The lowly electric iron and the persuasive advertising which accompanied it ensured that social conventions were made more rigid, gender division intensified and equality would not be found easily.

If a woman chose to work during her marriage it was looked upon as an act of desperation. The cost of living was high and few people could own a home and keep up with the new lifestyle which required its large array of domestic gadgets.

Divorce became the catchword of the decade. Divorce had increased among women now finding financial and emotional independence. Even women who had never been married were claiming that they were 'divorced'. But life was not easy for a single woman who soon became the object of social criticism. 'Companionate marriage' became popular. A man and a woman would live together in an 'experimental way,' intending to marry one another but not yet having tied the knot.

There was no sudden revolution which found women on an equal footing as men in the workplace and society. Rights, freedoms and privileges were received gradually and much time passed between gaining a right and its acceptance in wider society. The convention remained that women chose family and home over career and work.

Australian Women

2005-03-21T19:40:00.000-08:00

Australian women before the War were quiet, polite and modest.

In the 1920s, women suddenly appeared sporting short skirts, short hairstyles, smoking, swearing and riding motorcycles.

Where had this new Australian woman come from? Once the soldiers had packed their sacks and hopped on the ships to fight the War in Europe, women emerged from their houses to fill the jobs left empty in support of the armed forces at home and abroad.

The movement from house to workforce which was made by many (but not all) Australian women, led to the birth of the new woman of the 1920s. Liberated by her experiences in the war, women worked and lived in the manner men had enjoyed for decades.

But her liberation was not total - although women were working, they were working for half the pay men received, and though women could leave the house to pursue a career, society frowned upon women who did not complete their duty as mother and housekeeper. The older generations were more than a little confused by the lifestyles of the new, young and restless ladies.

Viewpoints on the “White Australia Policy”

2004-12-29T21:52:00.000-08:00

When the 'White Australia Policy' was set in motion with the introduction of the Immigration Restriction Bill in 1901, most white-Australians were in favour of the idea. Many white-Australians were convinced of their own racial superiority and concerned about losing their jobs to an influx of non-white workers. They believed that a restrictive immigration policy was the only way to ensure a secure future. While a number of other countries had already introduced immigration restrictions, not everyone around the world was in support of Australia's newest policies.

British concerns

In 1901, the Immigration Restriction Bill was proposed in federal parliament. Despite achieving nationhood earlier that year, Australia was still a British dominion, requiring the governor-general (the Queen's representative) to give royal assent to any proposed legislation before it could be made law. Many politicians were aware from past experiences that there was a risk of the Bill not being passed without the full support of the British Government.

As far back as 1855, the British government had indicated their disapproval of the colonies attempting to restrict immigration based on race or colour. While it had the power to overrule any legislation passed by the colonial parliaments, the British government employed a less confrontational tactic. For proposed legislation to be made law, it needed the governor of the colony to give it Her Majesty's Royal Assent. If the governor did not approve of the bill, he could 'reserve' it, which would either lead to a re-drafting of the bill or allow it to simply lapse, never becoming law.

With the support of the British Government, in 1874 the Governor of Queensland reserved a bill to amend the Goldfields Act 1874 (Qld), since it involved imposing a higher gold licensee fee on Asians. Coloured Race Restriction bills were also reserved in 1896 by Governors in New South Wales, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1897 the British-appointed Governor of New South Wales approved the Immigration Restriction Act 1897 (NSW). It was not, however, before the British Government had urged that immigration restrictions be complemented by a written test in a European language as opposed to discrimination purely on colour or race.

Not surprisingly, the British government had reservations about the Commonwealth's intentions to implement a 'white Australia policy.' At the time, Britain was in the process of securing its commercial treaty with Japan which would later, in 1902, be formalised as the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. Britain was also concerned that India, which became a part of the British Empire in 1857, would be offended by Australia's policies.

Offence for the Japanese

The 'White Australia Policy' was also not well received by the Japanese. This is despite the fact that Japan itself was renowned for her sakoku period in which the nation was closed to the outside world for more than two centuries.

The Japanese resentment of the colonies' (and later Australia's) immigration restriction policies, was more to do with their own national pride than the implications of the legislation. The Japanese believed their civilisation to be superior to other coloured races, such as the Chinese, Pacific Islander and Indian. The Japanese government was offended that, in the eyes of Australia, their people were grouped with other Asian races which they believed were much less advanced than they were.

The British attempted to encourage the Australian government to appease the Japanese. They insisted that the dictation test, which was to be used to restrict immigrants (supposedly on the grounds of literacy not race), be conducted in any European language, not just English. The Japanese, however, felt that this was not satisfactory. They still could not fathom why their people could not be given the same status as the Europeans.

Reactions against the Pacific Islanders Labourers Act 1901 (Cth)

When the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth) was enacted, there were a number of adverse reactions to it. Those who were most affected by the legislation were the 10 000 Pacific Islanders who were, for the most part, living in Queensland at the time. Mostly recruited from the Solomons and Vanuatu as young men, the vast majority of them had been recruited as indentured labour. They worked ten hours a day for six days a week on the sugarcane fields in Queensland and northern New South Wales.

The Act created anger and confusion amongst many Pacific Islanders. They could not understand why they had to leave the country when, to many of them, Queensland had become their home. Coming to Australia at a young age, many of them had worked hard over the years to improve their circumstances. Some leased farms or had even purchased their own homes in the area. A number of them had found wives and even had children born in Queensland who had grown up completely immersed in the Australian culture and who knew nothing of island life. Many even feared returning to their island communities, in the belief that they would be ostracised or even killed for breaching the laws of their tribes.

After the Commonwealth government allowed for several exemptions in 1906, approximately 1654 Pacific Islanders were eventually allowed to stay in the country. They were, however, restricted from being employed in the sugarcane industry.

There were a number of sugarcane farmers who were displeased about the introduction of the Pacific Island Labourers Act 1901 (Cth). Many felt that the cheap labour of the Pacific Islanders was essential to the success of the industry. Unlike the Islanders who were accustomed to the hot tropical climate of Queensland, people felt that most white-men were not accustomed to work in that weather.

Farmers also argued that the Pacific Islanders posed no threat to Australia, in contrast to their concern about the Asian population of migrants. The Pacific Islanders were from a limited population and were therefore unable to over-populate or control the country (which was a perceived possibility with Asians). They were thought to be unlikely to inter-marry, ensuring that the bloodline of Australians remained 'pure.' They also assisted the Australian economy by spending most of their wages in Australia, unlike many Chinese and Japanese who sent wages back home to their families or their bosses.

The fears of the farmers, however, were alleviated over time as technological innovations and efficient white, cane-cutting teams ensured the survival of the industry.

How did Australia join the Vietnam War?

2004-12-26T21:55:00.000-08:00

The announcement

On 29 April 1965 the Prime Minister, Robert Menzies, made a statement on Vietnam to a half-empty House of Representatives. At eight o'clock at night he announced the extension of Australian commitment in Vietnam both militarily and economically. After three years of providing military advisors to help train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam, Australia was now to send its own army into the South East Asian country in the form of an infantry Battalion (soldiers who fought on foot).

The Australian Government is now in receipt of a request from the Government of South Vietnam for further military assistance. We have decided - and this has been done after close consultation with the Government of the United States - to provide an infantry battalion for service in South Vietnam…. The takeover of South Vietnam would be a direct military threat to Australia and all the countries of South and South-East Asia.

Excerpt from Prime Minister Robert Menzies' speech in Parliament, 29 April 1965
This speech did not look like the beginning of the biggest ever deployment of Australian troops outside the two world wars. The rather low key announcement underplayed the extent of Australia's eventual involvement. Like the USA, Australia got slowly drawn in to what was essentially a civil war and a nationalist battle for independence. The Vietnam War never fulfilled any of its promise as a heroic battle against the evils of communism that the US and Australia thought it would.

The first troops

In 1962, after requests from the US and the Republic of Vietnam (RVN), Australia had sent in 30 military advisors to assist with the training of the RVN Army. These advisors were highly skilled in jungle warfare. They had been involved in the confrontation with Indonesia and had learned from Australian action in the jungles during World War Two. A Royal Australian Air Force squadron was also posted to nearby Thailand to act as back up.

By 1964, it was clear that the South Vietnamese forces would be beaten by the combined efforts of the Viet Cong and North Vietnam. If nothing was done, the South Vietnamese democracy (such as it was) would fall into communist hands. America began sending in more troops and asked for more countries to become actively involved so it would not seem like just an American action, but a group of countries helping out a beleaguered democracy. In June, Australia responded to the 'more international flags in Saigon' campaign and upped the number of its advisors to 60. By 1965 that number rose again to over 100, and, of course, by April the infantry battalion announced by Menzies in parliament was on its way. The Vietnam War had begun in earnest and so had Australia's participation in it.

The 1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment (RAR), consisting of 778 soldiers, arrived in Vietnam in May 1965. These were career soldiers, men who had chosen a job in the army - conscripts were not sent until the next year. Conscription had been re-introduced to Australia in November 1964. It was called the National Service Scheme and required all men to register when they turned 20. Each year certain dates were drawn and those whose birthdays were on that date (and who passed the medical and educational tests) had to serve in the army for two years. Anyone who did not fulfil their National Service obligations without a good reason could be fined or imprisoned. The first army units containing National Service conscripts entered the Vietnam War in early 1966.

More troops sent

In the next two-and-a-half years, the Australian commitment to Vietnam was expanded on a number of occasions. By August 1965, there were over 1000 soldiers making a Battalion group. In May 1966, that became a task force of 4500 men and by October 1967, the Australian troop numbers reached a peak of 8300 men. From 1962 until 1971, nearly 50 000 Australians served in Vietnam. Although it was a large number of troops by Australian standards, it was only a small proportion of the overall numbers, especially compared with the 500 000 troops sent in by America.

Although the majority of Australian troops fighting in Vietnam came under American command, they were able to use their own tactics in fighting the Viet Cong. The Australian troops spent the majority of their time walking the jungles and searching villages for Viet Cong troops, but they also fought in quite a few major engagements.

The 1st Battalion RAR was originally based in Bien Hoa Province near the South Vietnam capital of Saigon. The battalion joined US forces in clearing the area of Viet Cong forces to secure the nearby air base. Then, between 1966 and 1971, the main Australian Task Force, containing the 5th and 6th Battalions was based in Phuoc Tuy province.

The Battle of Long Tan

In 1966 Australian soldiers took part in the significant and now famous battle of Long Tan. They beat the Viet Cong after being lured into an ambush in a rubber plantation. The company involved in the battle received the United States Presidential Citation for their victory and along the way proved themselves to the Viet Cong, who, after Long Tan, would no longer readily engage Australian troops in that area. The Viet Cong came to realise that unlike the majority of the Americans, Australians had previous experience of jungle warfare and were a force to be reckoned with.

During the battle of Long Tan, 17 Australian servicemen lost their lives compared with 245 on the Viet Cong side. Australian troops had proven themselves, but it did not stop the Viet Cong continuing to grow in size and strength. Instead of being able to put down the insurrections with the troops that were already in the country, both America and Australia had to keep increasing their commitments to meet the growing threat from the Viet Cong.

Counting the cost

Australia's troop numbers kept climbing, as did the budget. The war in Vietnam eventually took 520 lives, wounded over 2000 more men and cost $200 million. The year 1968 was the worst year for Australian casualties. By 1969, in line with American policy, Australia began scaling down its presence in Vietnam, although the last Australian soldier would not leave until 1971.

Australia 1970s to 1990s

2004-12-25T20:51:00.000-08:00

By 1970 Australia had begun to withdraw its military commitments in Vietnam. Australia's participation in the war was formally declared at an end when the Governor-General issued a proclamation in January of 1973. From the time of the arrival of the first Australia personnel in 1962 to the official end of the war in 1973, some 50 000 Australians served in Vietnam. A total of 520 were killed and almost 2400 were wounded.
At home, the Vietnam War was the cause of a large amount of social and political dissent, comparable to the conscription disputes of the WWI period. The government punished those who had avoided the draft and soldiers sometimes met a hostile public upon returning to Australia. These tensions might be seen to have led to the 1972 election of the first Labor government in 23 years under Gough Whitlam.

The Whitlam government abolished conscription and withdrew troops from Vietnam. It made a conscious decision that Australia was not going to automatically follow the foreign policy of the United States. Under Whitlam, Australia took a more independent position, which involved attempting to reach out and connect with our regional neighbours in Asia. As part of this program, Whitlam eliminated the last elements of the White Australia Policy. The official end of this policy came in 1973, when the Whitlam government put in place a series of amendments preventing the enforcement of racist aspects of existing immigration laws. These amendments made it possible for all immigrants to obtain citizenship after three years of permanent residence regardless of their country of origin.

The Whitlam government also ratified all international agreements relating to immigration and race and made it so that race was disregarded as a factor in selecting immigrants. The Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth) made it illegal to use racial criteria for any official purpose, such as hiring or dismissal of employees. These changes led to a rise in immigration from Asia, especially from war-torn Vietnam, and Australia moved toward becoming the multicultural nation we know today.

The focus on multiculturalism and on Asia was not lost with the dismissal of the Whitlam government in 1975, but continued throughout the 1980s and 1990s, particularly under the leadership of Paul Keating. The Whitlam government also moved to increase trade relations with Asia, and officially recognised the People's Republic of China in order to have a more open political and trading relationship with China. After Whitlam, relations with China developed and, aside from the problems surrounding the Tiananmen Square events of 1989, continue to evolve.

Diplomatic relations with our near neighbour Indonesia have also been a developing and sometimes controversial area from the 1970s through to the present day. In 1999, following a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia, Portugal and the US, a referendum was held in East Timor on the question of full independence from Indonesia. Violence and militia activities broke out around this referendum and Australia sent a peacekeeping force (known as INTERFET) to restore order. The 1980s in Australia were dominated by anxieties surrounding the Cold War and the threat of nuclear war.

One key test for Australia's foreign relations came in its divergence from New Zealand on the nuclear issue. In 1985 New Zealand signed the Treaty of Rarotonga (named for the island on which it was signed) which is the common name for the South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty. This treaty put in place a nuclear-weapon-free zone in the South Pacific, banning the use, testing, and possession of nuclear weapons within the zone. Signatories to the treaty include Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands.

Under the Labour Party government of David Lange, this led to the enacting of anti-nuclear legislation which prevented ships carrying nuclear weapons or powered by nuclear reactors visiting New Zealand. This, in turn, led to the suspension of ANZUS relations between the US and New Zealand. Australia, however, did not put in place any similar zone of restriction around its own territories, and as Australia continues to have nuclear reactors, and is home to around 25 percent of the world's uranium deposits, the nations of the South Pacific remained divided on the nuclear issue throughout the 1980s and 1990s.

In internal events, the mid-to-late 1980s saw an unprecedented boom in the Australian economy. The value of stocks in some of the largest companies on the share market increased by three or four times, in some cases in as little as a year's time. With the deregulation of banks in Australia, there was a steep rise in lending which further fuelled the share market boom. The activities of entrepreneurs and the 'corporate raiders' dominated the economy, as they raised huge sums of money, engaged in takeover bids and made massive profits. Alan Bond is the businessman most often associated with the corporate excesses of the 1980s. Bond is famous both for high-profile business ventures and for being charged with criminal offences associated with the collapse of his various companies.

Like many of the high-flyers of the 1980s, Bond came unstuck in the wake of the 1987 stock market crash. 'Black Monday' is the name given to Monday October 19, 1987, the day the Dow Jones Index in New York fell 22.6 percent, the largest one-day decline in recorded stock market history. The precipitous fall was not only felt in the United States, but reverberated all over the world. By the end of October 1987, the Australian share markets had fallen 41.8 percent. No single cause is attributed to the crash, but it has been put forward that a mixture of speculation, overvaluation, over-extended debts and market psychology was to blame. The 1987 crash demonstrated the globalised nature of international finance markets and showed just how connected to the rest of the world Australia was in the era of computerised communication technology.

International attention also fell on Australia around the issue of Indigenous rights. In the wake of the 1988 Bicentennial, more and more calls came for Native Title rights to be recognised by the Australian courts, and eventually the doctrine of Terra Nullius (the 'legal fiction' that Australia was uninhabited upon settlement in 1788) was overturned and Native Title was established at law.

The High Court, not the government or parliament, was the major cause of official recognition of Native Title. The two crucial High Court decisions were made in the Mabo and Wik cases of the 1990s.

The development of Australia's foreign relations has spanned from the nation's time as a dominion and later a realm of the British Empire, to its position in the 1970s and 1980s as a steadfast Cold War ally of the US, to its engagement with Asia as an independent regional power in its own right. Australia's relations with the world are based on its position as a leading trading nation and as a significant donor of humanitarian aid.

Contemporary Australian foreign policy is based on a commitment to multilateralism and regionalism, and as one of the drafters of the United Nations Charter, Australia has given firm support to the United Nations and its specialised agencies. Australia was a member of the UN Security Council from 1986 to 1987 and sat on the UN Human Rights Commission from 1994 to 1996. At an international level, Australia has historically taken a leading role in many UN activities, including peacekeeping missions, disarmament negotiations and drug control.

Australia also is active in meetings of the Commonwealth Heads of Government (CHOGM) and in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum. APEC promotes trade and economic policies along the Pacific Rim. As a consequence of our regional position, Australia also plays a central part in relations between developed and developing nations within the countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Under John Howard (Prime Minister from 1996 to 2007), Australia continued to engage with our neighbours and with the global community in general, with special concern given to recent concerns such as terrorism, free trade, integration with Asia and stability in the Asia-Pacific region.

Despite all the above, the Australia Acts (1982 and 1986) completely divorced Australia, and its States, from any British control, be it executive, legislative or judicial. Queen Elizabeth II is the sovereign of both Britain and Australia, as opposed to one kingdom.

Australia’s Legacy

2004-12-03T21:40:00.000-08:00

Most Australians are able to explain their understanding of the Anzac Legend and recount details of the events which took place in Gallipoli during World War I. However, not as many are aware of the events which took place on the Western Front, during which 85 percent of the Australian troops who served overseas were killed or injured. While the sacrifices that the thousands of Australians made in Gallipoli cannot be detracted from, Australians should also be made aware of the legacy of their troops who fought on the Western Front.

Villers-Bretonneux
Aside from the Japanese air raids on Darwin and northern Australia during World War II, Australia has not yet experienced the sheer devastation of a war zone on Australian soil. Most Australians do not know what it is like to lose their homes and communities in war and, as a result, may not be able to understand fully the gratitude and indebtedness that people can feel towards others who have saved their town and their community.

During World War I, the small village of Villers-Bretonneux, located in the north of France, quite literally had to endure a battle in its own backyard. In 1918, German forces decided to advance their offensive and move in to capture Villers-Bretonneux. The ANZACs counterattacked not long after and the fighting between the two sides continued through the village streets. Eventually the Australians recaptured the town and returned it to the grateful people of Villers-Bretonneux.

True to the reality of war, however, nothing is ever gained without some kind of loss. The village and the battle were not won without the town itself being destroyed. Buildings, if they happened to remain standing, had been severely damaged. The fields resembled lakes of mud. The deserted, barbed-wire surrounded trenches and the leftover shells, served as reminders of the battle which had taken place. In addition to the town being in ruins, 1200 Australians were killed in liberating the village from the German enemy.

The commemoration of Australian soldiers
The people of Villers-Bretonneux show a deep respect towards the Australian soldiers for returning their town to them. Their reverence for Australia is still prevalent today in the town. Victoria had a particular connection to the French village, because the battalion of Australian men who fought there had been raised in Victoria. In acknowledgement, the main street of Villers-Bretonneux is named Rue de Melbourne after the state of Victoria's capital, Melbourne. There is also a restaurant in the village called Le Kangourou after Australia's native animal, the kangaroo.

The civilians of Victoria also supported Villers-Bretonneux. Victorian school children raised money which was sent, in the 1920s, to build the school which is called Victoria College. It was opened in 1929 and still to this day, the school remembers Australia's help. Above every blackboard is the phrase: 'N'oublions jamais l'Australie': 'Never Forget Australia'. The assembly hall of the school features carvings of Australian animals in acacia wood, a type of tree which is predominantly native to Australia. There is also a small museum on the grounds of the school, acknowledging the Australian troops.

Each year, the people of Villers-Bretonneux hold an Anzac Day ceremony on 25 April, at the school that Australia's own school children helped to build. This is not only because it marks the date that Australian troops landed on the shore at Gallipoli in 1915 but also because it was three years later, to the day, that the Australians returned their home to the people of Villers-Bretonneux.

Their gratitude is also commemorated at the Australian National War Memorial that is located in the Villers-Bretonneux Military Cemetery. On the memorial are the names of 10 982 Australian soldiers who fought and died in France but have no known grave.

Le Hamel
It is an interesting point that Australia is a nation which commemorates a military failure such as the Gallipoli Campaign with the Anzac Day public holiday. However, Australia does not bestow such recognition on one of her greatest ever military victories. The Battle of Le Hamel was such a battle.

On 4 July 1918, all five Australian divisions fought together for the first time as the Australian Corps in the Battle of Le Hamel. It was led by Lieutenant General John Monash and was the largest and most important battle for the corps. Their aim was to capture the French town of Le Hamel and the area which surrounded it, to give them free movement between nearby Villers-Bretonneux and the Somme. Control of this area was important for the defence of Amiens. The Australians understood the significance of this battle and did not disappoint, capturing Le Hamel and 1400 German prisoners in less than two hours. The victory, however, came at the expense of a total of 1062 Allied casualties.

Monash knew that the best way to ensure victory was for the Australians to be well prepared and to catch the Germans off guard. The planning which led up to the battle was kept strictly secret. They used an air force to map out the German trenches, performed dummy raids to trick the Germans and employed older and, therefore, noisier planes not only to bomb the Germans but also to act as a noise shield. The purpose of the noise shield was to prevent the Germans from being able to locate accurately the Australians' tanks.
It has often been said that this battle marked a turning point in World War I: the point from which Germany began to lose its hold over the Allies. It was the first time the Allies were strategic in an operation and the result was successful. For many people, however, it was more than a military victory. The Battle of Le Hamel was a morale boost. After the battle the French Prime Minister, Georges Clemenceau, addressed the Australian troops to express his gratitude for their having fought for freedom alongside his own men. He acknowledged their valour in the fight for freedom and remarked how the whole continent's expectations of the Australians had been met and even surpassed.

It is undeniable that the people of France are, to this day, moved by the sacrifices that so many brave Australian troops made by coming to fight for freedom in their homeland during World War I. The French Government affirmed this by donating land on which the Australian Corps Memorial was opened in Le Hamel, France on 4 July 1998: the 80th anniversary of the Battle of Le Hamel. It is the first memorial on the Western Front that has been made in recognition of the Australian Corps.

While schools and history books tend to focus more on Gallipoli than the events on the Western Front, in the villages of France that were invaded by the Germans during World War I, the French people will never forget the Australians who sacrificed their lives for places they had never been and for people they did not even know.

Australia’s Response

2004-08-25T21:51:00.000-07:00

The Australian response to World War I was of jubilation - the chance for Australia to prove herself in battle.

Young Australians rallied to the cause.
The announcement of World War II found none of the enthusiasm that characterised the announcement of war 25 years earlier. There was no singing and dancing in the streets. The mood was sombre. Australia had become involved in another war because of her status as a dominion of Britain; her foreign policy was tied to the mother country.

Despite initial reactions Australians found themselves rallying for a new cause once again. Young men and the unemployed joined the military when promised adventure. Women joined the war effort to support the troops abroad.

There was some discontent as pacifists and conscientious objectors disagreed with Australia's involvement, but the majority of Australians resigned themselves to participating in another war.

As Japanese power in the Pacific grew, the threat of an attack on the Australian mainland loomed.

Australia not only had to fulfill her duties as a member of the Commonwealth but also protect her own soil against what was thought to be imminent invasion.

Australia's response to escalating tension in Europe and Asia: ties to Britain

Australia suffered from the 'tyranny of distance'. She was a Commonwealth nation on the other side of the world from Britain. As a dominion of Britain (a member of the Commonwealth), Australia had the right to determine her own foreign policy. This right was granted in 1923.

Nevertheless, in terms of European foreign policy, Australia showed almost no independence until 1942. Australia was tied to Britain in many ways - military strategy, foreign policy, financial markets, judicial decisions, social prestige, educational standards and fine arts.

There were few groups of Australians who wanted independence from Britain. Problems in Europe with Hitler and the Nazis and Mussolini and fascism seemed a world away.

The majority of Australia's population in 1939 was of British or Irish stock.

Ralph Doig from the Premier's Department in Perth explained, 'At that stage, we were nearly all of direct British descent. The Royal Family still meant a great deal to everybody in Australia, and nobody thought of anything else other than being British; and there was no questioning those days that 95% of the people were intensely patriotic.

World War I really was no direct concern of Australia's but we were one of the first countries into it, and the same applied in World War II. We weren't under threat but everybody felt Britain's in it, and so we're in it as a matter of course.'

Australia supported British Prime Minister Chamberlain's policy of appeasement towards Hitler in the early 1930s. There was a concern that because Britain was so far away from Australia, she would be unable to defend Australia should a war break out in both Europe and the Pacific - therefore, Australia supported the policy of appeasement.

There was the concern in Australia of Japan's expansionist policies. The Australian government made no response when Japan invaded China in 1937. In November 1938, however, Australian waterside workers refused to load iron for Japan because it could be used for the war against China. These matters held little interest for Britain.

When the policy of appeasement failed and Hitler invaded Poland, Australia watched and waited with bated breath for Britain's next move.

If Britain declared war, Australia would have little choice but to comply. British support could mean the difference between invasion and defence of Australia should Japan turn her interests south. Australia entered World War II shortly after the invasion of Poland

In the days leading to the announcement of war, the mood in Australia was tense. Radio programmes were interrupted by special news broadcasts, newspapers issued special editions throughout the day, cinemas ran special newsflashes. Everyone was waiting for the inevitable.

Prime Minister Robert Menzies was visiting Europe when Hitler invaded Poland. Menzies cancelled his tour and returned to Melbourne to await news from Britain.

Despite Australia's independence in foreign policy, her moral duty as a dominion and member of the Commonwealth gave the government no authority to influence decisions that would involve Australians in the war. Menzies felt that Australians would rise to the occasion regardless of the outcome.

At 3:15am on Saturday, 2 September 1939, Prime Minister Robert Menzies broadcast a warning to the nation that the danger of war existed.

Australians were stunned. Sunday, 3 September 1939 was Father's Day. Church congregations became larger. There was a quiet mood of contemplation about the future. Races and football matches were held, but no one attended. Australians knew that the British government had delivered Hitler an ultimatum which would expire at 8 pm Australian Eastern time on Sunday.

The tyranny of distance reared its head once again. There was no international telephone. Government ministers and Australian people tuned their radios to hear news from Europe.

The External Affairs Department listened to the short wave radio hoping to hear breaking news.

Radio received instant news from Berlin, London and Paris - Britain and France had declared war on Germany.

Prime Minister Menzies received a telegram soon after from the British Admiralty requesting Australia's assistance in the war. At 9 pm on Sunday, 3 September, Prime Minister Menzies broadcast on national and commercial radio stations:

'Fellow Australians, it is my melancholy duty to inform you officially that, in consequence of the persistence by Germany in her invasion of Poland, Great Britain has declared war upon her, and that, as a result, Australia is also at war…

Great Britain and France, with the co-operation of the British Dominions, have struggled to avoid this tragedy…

But, in the result, their efforts have failed, and we are therefore, as a great family of nations, involved in a struggle which we must at all costs win, and which we believe in our hearts we will win. '

Initial reactions of Australians: not another war

A sombre mood prevailed.

At the Carl Thomas Club, a popular bar in Melbourne, the band stopped playing and tuned in to the radio to hear the news. At 9:30 pm the band sang the Australian national anthem 'God Save the King'.

In Melbourne, crowds of people gathered at Flinders Street railway station. There were no flags, demonstrations, singing or dancing. People held their newspapers and waited for the shock to pass. People were described as being grim faced, anxious, eager for news, but not confident or joyful.

There was the consensus among many Australians that Britain had done the right thing in declaring war against Germany. There was no united anti-war movement.

Older people in Australia remembered the terrors of World War I and faced World War II with renewed fears for the safety of loved ones. Margaret Maxwell was a schoolgirl in Swan Hill, Victoria.

She explained, 'I don't remember very much myself, but I can remember my parents and they were both in tears - that's what impressed me more than anything because they were so upset about it. But I was nine when the war started.'

Maurie Jones, a schoolboy in Perth, remembered the evening, 'We were coming back from the evening service at St Mary's in Leederville, in Perth. And people were rushing out of the doors, saying war has been declared and Mum got very upset. I was twelve, and my brother was fourteen. And Dad kept saying, "It's all right Kate, it'll be over long before the boys are of military age".

There were some groups of people, as in World War I, who contested Australia's involvement in the war.

Niall Brennan was a university student studying in Melbourne, 'We'd been fearing it for a long time and I remember the scene in our own drawing room at the time, in fact my cousin burst into tears. We listened to the smug voice of Robert Menzies saying that Britain was at war and therefore Australia was at war.

And my father jumped up like a firecracker and said, 'That's constitutionally wrong!' and of course he was proved right; that was one of the stupidest things the Menzies ever said. But it added to the tension in the room at the time. It was the end of possibly two or three years of fearing that there would be war, so when it came there was a certain amount of relief.'

These groups of people were few and had little influence over Australia's involvement in the war.

Later reactions: government plans and adventurous young adults

With Australia committed to the war, the Australian government made plans to improve the state of Australia's military forces. Australia's military forces had suffered from lack of maintenance after World War I. Soldiers had returned from war and sought work. Civilian militia formed, but training and discipline had suffered in peace time.

Menzies decided that a group of Australian soldiers would remain in Australia to protect against a homeland attack and introduced conscription for the defence of the Australian mainland. While he made no promises to Britain that Australian troops would be sent to Europe, Menzies took steps to increase the size of the army.

A new generation of Australians had grown up in peace. It was this generation which, after the initial shock of the announcement of war wore off, greeted the prospects of travel and adventure with enthusiasm.

Olga Masters was a young mother living on the New South Wales central coast. She said, 'the people were all standing about with their newspapers, shocked. The look on their faces seemed to say, 'What is happening? What is happening?' You felt like going up to them and talking about the situation. You felt an excitement too, you know. Perhaps it's not a good thing to confess, but all young people feel excitement when major change is about to take place. You forget about the death and destruction. The 1930s had been a grim, slow time for young people'.

On 15 September 1939, Prime Minister Menzies announced recruitment for Australian military divisions for service at home and abroad. Men rushed to enlist - the adventurous, the dutiful, the unemployed and the veterans. There emerged a social pressure to enlist.

Sandy Rayward was a sergeant in the Permanent Army stationed at Sydney. He said, 'I think it was high adventure: going to places we'd never seen before, the thought of the First World War and the high hopes and the great actions that were instilled in us in history, Gallipoli and the whole of France; and we couldn't get away quick enough actually. It was just to get over there and let 'em know how good we were, because we were all terribly sports minded and everybody knew how good we were at sports so we thought well, we can do just as well over there and have lots of fun as well'.

The sadness that accompanied the announcement of war quickly dissipated, and the Australians faced the war with confidence, pride, and the resolution to do their best for Britain and the Australian people

Australia!

2004-07-25T21:53:00.000-07:00

Arriving Australia the way we do is a serious matter. The customs demands a minimum of 48 hours notice before arrival which is not easy if the only means of communication is VHF and cell phones. However we sent them a warning by e-mail before we left Vanuatu and the system actually worked. Before entering Cairns we contacted the customs and quarantine by VHF but we was told to stay overnight by anchor as we were not “expected” to arrive until august 4. A passage time of 8 days from Vanuatu was a bit to fast for them. However as we arrived in the Marlin Marina following morning the welcome committee was a cruise ship worthy! One from quarantine went through whatever of food and hidden storage room, and then came two officers from customs and immigration doing the normal check in. Next group of two went along taking samples of bilge water and whatever they thought could contain germs or possible pollution. Finally the last group, three officers and a dog went sniffing through Haffiman luckily without finding anything suspicious. Finally we were cleared through and welcomed to Australia and Cairns.

And so far of what we have seen another “paradise”. Everything is clean, neat and organized. Internet at lightening speed, free swimming pool with sand beach free for everybody, FREE gas barbecues for everyone to use and best of all for Haffie, a city full of shopping possibilities!! Our closest neighbors in the marina are the Hilton and Shangri-La hotels, and only a few minutes walk to city center with all sorts of restaurants. Our first day was spent as usual with cleaning out the boat; laundry and getting used to walk on land again. The sail maker has already been here collecting all my sails and hopefully we get them back soon as we have to be in Bali at the beginning of September to meet another friend of Haffie now living in Perth. At this moment Haffie and Imran are running around in town with Haffies friend Lina (Katt) that came up from Sydney, while I was left doing “office” work trying to catch up with our photos etc.

Our sails are back and we have spent some great days in Cairns including a visit to the zoo saying hallo to the locals: Koala and Kanga, and even Mr. Crock came out of the pond for some fresh chicken. Cairns were the first place on our trip we left “unfinished” and really a place to recommend for a holiday trip. A day trip to the Great Barrier Reef was unforgettable even if it was raining cats and dogs and blowing some 25 knots. I went on a snorkeling safari around one of the reefs for almost an hour and had the most fantastic experience. But Bali and Haffies friend Halley is waiting. Out from Cairns and up along the coast on the inside of the reefs towards Cape York. 38 way points and 3 days and we rounded into the Torres Strait. The wind was steady from behind some 20 – 30 knots and was one of our best stages. Haffie really got work to do on her night shifts following the progress on the computer, avoiding traffic and changing courses. There are mainly two concerns sailing here in Australia, one is the numerous reefs you do not see but know are there, the other is the constant change of currents both in directions and force.

We passed the Cape York with almost 3 knots a head, and doing 4,5 – 5 knots at cruising speed by engine the progress gets rather slow. From Cape York to Darwin it was 5 days almost without changing course until the final approach, and again it was a race and gamble with the currents. This time we were lucky and a little clever and passed the most critical point in the middle of the night by engine with 4,5 knots through the water and 9,5 knots over ground! At the moment we are anchored outside Darwin Yacht club at 3 meter at low tide and 10 at high tide waiting to be locked into the marina Monday morning. With our experiences and memories from Cairns we are really looking forward to our planned week stay here in Darwin!

Darwin did not have the same charm and temptations as Cairns, but we are not complaining. However after a week we are now looking forward to get on to Bali. A little confusion about cruising permits and visa will hopefully be solved as we arrive at Bali. At the moment we are waiting for our mail from Norway that seems to have been stuck somewhere and our departure have been delayed until Sept 1.

Exploring Australia

2004-06-13T01:01:00.000-07:00

World’s smallest continent and sixth largest country, Australia, is a popular destination among the travelers around the world for its diversified natural beauty and vibrant cultural enrichment. Travelers taste a perfect blend of urban tourism and natural wonders while travelling in this country.

Entire Australia is divided into 8 states and territories. Those are Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania, Victoria, Northern Territory, Queensland, South Australia and Western Australia.
Among numerous popular travel destinations, 16 tourist spots which are truly considered as tourism icons of Australia are distinct for their breathtaking natural beauty.

Ningaloo: Ningaloo Marine Park is located at mid north coast of Western Australia. It is world’s one of the largest fringing reefs which is a habitat for more than 50 species of soft coral and 200 species of hard coral. Intriguing marine life and adventure on red sand are the main attractions of this travel spot.

Great Ocean Road: Great Ocean Road is located amidst of spectacular natural landscape in the southern part of Australia. Things to watch in Great Ocean Roads are wonderful coastline, rain forests with wildlife, scenic view of mountain ranges and vibrant Aboriginal culture.

Kimberly: Kimberly, in North West corner of Western Australia is famous for diamond mines, wired rock foundations, golden Cable beach and rock pools.

Gippsland: Ninety miles long sand beach of Gippsland is located in the South-Eastern region of Victoria State. Gippsland lakes which are biggest expanse of inland waterways in Australia, is a favorite destination for the travelers visiting in this region.

Tasmanian Wilderness: Tasmanian Wilderness comprises of 17 Nation Park. Wonderful natural beauty of mountain ranges and lakes are the major attraction on this area.

Freycinet national park: Freycinet national park is in Central-Eastern coast and just few hours of drive away from Hobart city. It is a perfect spot for one day outing from the city while experiencing the tranquil atmosphere in the middle of pink granite mountain and white beach.

Kangaroo Island: Kangaroo Island in the south coast of South Australia is considered as the ecological heaven for its diversified native wildlife. Pink pelicans, sea lions, platypus, koalas and of course Kangaroos are most notable among them.

Flinders ranges and outback: This another beautiful landscape for nature lovers. An underground art gallery and museum has been made in an abandoned mine in this area to attract more tourists. Walking along the outback in this region will be a memorable experience for anyone.

Great Barrier Reef: This is probably most popular tourist destination in Australia. Great Barrier Reef, world’s largest coral reef is enlisted in World Heritage list and a true living masterpiece. This coral reef is almost 2000 kilometers long and stretches along Queensland coast. Watching Colorful marine life under water will surely be a lifetime experience.

Fraser Island: Fraser Island is another world heritage listed place in Queensland. It is world’s largest sand island and beach of the island is almost 75 miles long. Rain forest, sand cliff and amazing color of the sea are natural attraction of this place.

Red Center: Red monolith in Australia’s Red Central is a sacred place for Aboriginal people and provides breathtaking site of red sand dunes amidst desert. The colors of sand and surrounding atmosphere during sunrise and sunset are truly spectacular here.

Kakadu: Kakadu is Australia’s biggest national park and located few miles away from Darwin city towards east. Major attractions of this place are lush rain forest, 50,000 years old aboriginal rock art gallery and rugged escarpments. Visiting Kakadu will be an amazing experience for its wide range of species including ancient flora and fauna.

Byron Bay: Byron Bay is in extreme east of Australia. This place is well-known for surfing activities, alternate philosophies and hedonistic indulgence. High tubular tides are main reason behind the popularity of this place among surfers and Byron Bay is considered as a new age surfing paradise. Coasting with hand-gliders, watching whales and colors of rainbow are other popular activities of the tourists in this place.

Blue Mountains: Blue mountain World heritage area in New South Wales is just 100 kilometers away from Sydney and spans across 1 million hectares area. Amazing natural beauty of Blue Mountains is spread across its sandstone cliffs, tall forests, waterfalls, canyons and bush lands. Wentworth fall and a rock pinnacle named as three sisters are must watch in this area.

Namadgi National Park: Namadgi Nation Park is located very near to Canberra city and well known for its rich aboriginal history and tranquil natural beauty of mountain ranges and bush land. It is perfect place for a day long outdoor adventure.

Australian Alps: Australian Alps is the ideal tourist destination for snow lovers. This snow mountain range stretches from Canberra to eastern Victoria. Skiing and mountain bike riding are the most popular activities among tourist visiting this place.

Though scenic beauties of natural landscapes are spread across entire country, Australia is a highly urbanized country. The big cities in Australia are Melbourne, Sydney, Canberra, Brisbane, Adelaide, Hobart, Perth, Darwin, Gold Coast, Cairns, Broome and Alice Springs. All these cities provide all sort of modern facilities and ambience to tourist and skyscrapers and shopping strips are common characteristic of all these cities.

Sydney is the oldest and biggest city in Australia and famous for its picturesque harbor and Opera house. Melbourne is considered as the cultural capital of Australia and largest shopping and sporting center of the country. Canberra is the political capital of Australia.

Australian – Asian relations

2004-04-25T21:35:00.000-07:00

Change in Australia
At the end of the Vietnam War it would have been easy for Australia to retreat into a policy of isolating itself further from Asia. The old perception of Australia as an essentially European country (rather than a Pacific one), could have reasserted itself in the face of defeat in Vietnam. Instead, the period of change initiated by the new Labor government under E. G. (Gough) Whitlam took hold in foreign policy as well as domestic. Just a fortnight after being elected on 2 December 1972, Whitlam had officially recognised the communist government of the People's Republic of China and opened up diplomatic relations, as well trading and cultural links. Within a year, Australia had reopened its embassy in Beijing which had been closed in protest in 1949 when the communist government took power.

Whitlam was determined that in the future, Australian foreign policy would be Australian and not dependent on Britain or America. For years, the racially-charged mistrust of Australia had prevented interaction in its own region. Whitlam wanted to change that. He also wanted to divorce Australian foreign policy from Australian defence policy. The 'forward defence' policy of the Menzies government was abandoned as unconstructive and backward-looking. As America withdrew to rebuild its ego after being humiliated in Vietnam, and as Britain moved more towards the European Economic Community (EEC - later the European Union), Australia began to realise the importance of developing regional links.

New trade links in South-East Asia
In the 1970s, as a result of new restrictions placed on European countries by the EEC, and higher taxes for importing goods to America, those trading markets became increasingly closed to Australia, but the Pacific markets began to open up. Since the end of the Second World War Australia had been steadily increasing its exports to Japan. By the middle of the 1960s Japan had overtaken Britain as Australia's main export market. In 1969-1970 25 percent of Australian exports went to Japan, as opposed to only 11.8 percent going to Britain. By the middle of the next decade, 55 percent of Australia's mineral exports were heading to Japan and 46 percent of the coal and iron ore being used in Japan originated in Australia. At the end of the Vietnam War, Gough Whitlam extended the export markets into South-East Asia when new import/export agreements were made with countries like South Korea and Taiwan.

Relations between Australia and South-East Asia also improved markedly after the abandonment of the 'White Australia' policy in the 1970s. Not only did that instigate the arrival of Asian refugees, it also allowed people from Asian countries to obtain tourist visas so they could visit Australia. The ending of the White Australia policy meant that Asian countries could now pursue better diplomatic relations with Australia.
The post-War relationship with Vietnam

As part of the program of separating foreign policy decisions froM those of other countries, Australia disagreed with American policy at the end of the Vietnam War and maintained relations with communist Vietnam. Recognising its responsibilities to the country, the Australian government sent aid to help with reconstruction. That aid was suspended for a while during the Third Indo-China war between Kampuchea (Cambodia) and Vietnam. By the mid-1980s, however, good relations had once again been re-established.
The fact that so many Vietnamese refugees had been resettled in Australia in the years after the war helped relations to remain cordial and promoted cooperation between the two countries. In their desperation to escape persecution, many of the refugees who came to Australia in the 1970s had left behind family members.

In the early 1980s, the Vietnamese Family Migration Program was set up by the Australian and Vietnamese governments to help reunite separated families. By the late 1980s, the number of Vietnamese people living in Australia more than doubled to approximately 190 000.

Historical perspective on Vietnam
It is always difficult to look back and ask, 'Was a war justified?' With the conflict in Vietnam, that answer has often been obscured by the motives for entering the war and the fact that Australia did not win. Historical perspectives on the Vietnam War have changed since the 1970s and time, alongside new evidence, has shown that the premise behind foreign intervention in Vietnam was deeply flawed in its emphasis on the threat of communism.

In his 1990 memoirs, John McNamara, the American Foreign Secretary during the War, admits that America was blinded by its fear of communism into ignoring the nationalist angle of the conflict in Vietnam. In the early 1960s, both Ho Chi Minh and Ngo Dinh Diem were fervent nationalists fighting to free their country from foreign influence. It was only the fact that Diem was anti-communist that made his government attractive to America and its allies. The Americans and Australians did firmly believe they were fighting the forces of communism in Vietnam. What they failed to understand was that they were really involved in a nationalist struggle for an independent, united Vietnam.

Eisenhower's 'Domino Theory' did play out in South-East Asia, but 'monolithic' communism never made it to Australian shores. Does that mean it was not really a threat to Australia? Despite losing the war in Vietnam, there was never an attempt by any of the communist Asian countries to the north to force communism upon Australia. If the driving force behind the conflict in Vietnam was nationalism not communism then Australia was never under any real threat.

Many Australians in the 21st Century would probably say it was a mistake to go to war in Vietnam but that is the benefit of hindsight. Hindsight does not take into account the political and social forces at the time that were influencing peoples and governments. It is very difficult for anyone who did not live through the Cold War to understand the fear that pervaded all aspects of Australian society about the communist threat to the north. Not only were the old fears of the 'yellow peril' re-activated, but the new fear of the 'red hordes' were also pressed on to Australians for years. We cannot judge or condemn the reasons why Australia went into Vietnam. We can only try to understand why at the time it seemed a justifiable and winnable war.

Australia and Asia today

By placing itself firmly in the centre of Asian affairs, instead of backing away and viewing Asia with suspicion, Australia has changed its world perspective. The Vietnam War brought Australians out of an Anglo-centric way of life to the realisation that they had a lesser part to play in Europe and a larger part to play in Asia.
The longstanding fear and distrust of the South-East Asian nations has given way to a new era of cooperation and trade. The years since the end of the Vietnam War have shown that cooperation is possible even between countries with opposing ideologies. Now, almost 60 percent of all Australian exports go to Asia. Since the establishment in 1989 of Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), Australia is now firmly established as one of the leaders in the economic outlook of the region. APEC aims to reduce barriers to trade in the Pacific and promotes open export and import markets between its 21 member countries.

As well as being economically involved in Eastern Asia, Australia has also shown increased commitment to the peace and security of the region through its links with the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN). ASEAN was set up in the late 1960s by Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines to promote economic, social, cultural and technological cooperation among the countries of South East Asia. Since then, other countries like Brunei, Vietnam and Cambodia have also joined. The ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) was established in 1994 to promote diplomacy and peace in South-East Asia. Since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, Australia (along with other members of the ARF) has been working to increase counter-terrorism initiatives and to improve security in South East Asia.

The lover’s trail in Western Australia

2004-04-13T02:34:00.000-07:00

Looking for a romantic getaway? Western Australia offers romance on the horizon, with its perfect dreamy sunsets that can be watched from the window of a cozy cottage. Picture yourself with a glass of wine in your hand relaxing on the sandy beach secluded and peaceful that can make any one fall in love.

If you want to spend a romantic day in Western Australia which has a perfect start and beautiful romantic ending, then you can choose from any one of the following delights:

Cruise on the famous swan river:

Swan river flows through the city of Perth, there are lots of tours operating for you to choose from. Swan Valley has a number of award-winning wineries, many of which are family owned and run, that offer superb alfresco and restaurant meals as well as cellar door tastings.

You can also visit Margaret River Chocolate Company in swan valley where you can enjoy a delicious selection of cakes, desserts, chocolate fondues, hot and cold drinks and the best hot chocolate in Western Australia.

Tranquility of the enchanting Broome:

The cable beach is most famous for its sun set, which is perfect for lovers; it is twenty two kilometers long. You can see the curve of earth along the horizon. There are sand crabs, tropical shells and coral to find while you take a stroll along the beach.

There is a Buddha sanctuary with a three meter high Buddha statue. You can go to the turtle bay to watch the turtles; it has most spectacular opal color of water. You can shop for their famous pearl, as a gift for your love ones. There also a unique experience of riding camels in the sunset at the cable beach.

Stairway to the moon is not to be missed by lovers, it is an unusual phenomenon which occurs only on full moon, when due to gravitation pull of moon the tides recede and an image of a stairway appears as a rippled pattern for kilometers towards full moon on the horizon.

There are plenty of things to do in Western Australia during your romantic holiday; best part of Western Australia is its secluded locations which provide perfect ambience for romance.

There are beautiful cottages, Bed & Breakfasts, Farm Stays, Self-Contained Cottages/Apartments, Eco Lodges and Heritage Properties which are available for accommodation in your romantic holiday.

Food and shopping in 1960's Australia

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Prior to the 1960s, traditional British meals, such as roast dinners, chops or sausages and vegetables, were the typical dinner for most Australians. Breakfast usually consisted of porridge, toast, eggs, or simple cereals like cornflakes.

Food was usually purchased from specialist vendors - bread from a baker, vegetables from a greengrocer, meat from a butcher and other staple items like sugar and flour from a local corner store.
By the 1960s, new American-inspired shopping centres and supermarkets had become common, particularly in the newly-built suburbs. These contained a number of shopping facilities under one roof and markedly changed Australian shopping habits.

In the 1960s, American-style, convenient, pre-prepared foods like frozen French fries, and entire frozen dinners became available. These foods were particularly attractive to time-poor women who had recently joined the paid workforce, but were still responsible for the preparation of family meals.

In 1968, Kentucky Fried Chicken (KFC) opened its doors. Kentucky Fried Chicken was Australia's first American-style takeaway store and would soon be followed by other fast food chains. These fast food restaurants would significantly alter Australia's eating habits.

The quest for an Australian identity

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While the British and American influence has played a major role in defining the shape of Australia that we know today, a number of other influences have contributed to the development of the Australian identity.

As settlers in an unfamiliar land, the Australian identity was long bound to the stereotype of the tough, heroic bushman who fought to tame a difficult landscape. Australian values like 'mateship', 'fair go' and the 'Aussie battler' emerged as a result of this myth. Throughout the prosperous post-war years, however, a new Australian ideal emerged, and Australians were thought to be part of a more laidback culture that enjoyed the 'good life'.

As migrants arrived in Australia over the decades, they introduced new stories, traditions and perspectives to Australian culture. The traditional concepts of an Australia as a white British colony, or a land of struggling bush-dwellers, no longer seemed to fit with the diverse new reality of society. As Indigenous peoples were finally acknowledged as the original owners of the land, the role of Indigenous values in the construction of a true Australian identity had become apparent.

As such, the Indigenous and migrant influence has intervened in the American and British effect on Australian culture.

As Australian society adapted to changing cultural influences across the decades, whether they be British, American, Indigenous, Asian or European, the national identity continually evolved in response. In the face of globalisation, however, the future of Australia's unique national identity was increasingly challenged by the development of a global culture.

Television in Australia in the 1960s

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The first two decades of Australian commercial television were largely dominated by American comedy and drama. In 1959, the ten most popular programmes on Australian television were all American. British programmes dominated the ABC's schedules, which modelled itself on Britain's public broadcaster, the BBC.
Between 1956 and1963, almost all content screened on Australian television was sourced from overseas. Of this, 83 percent was American, with the rest from Britain.

Throughout the 1960s, American TV shows like Perry Mason and I Love Lucy continued to rate among the nation's favourite programmes. Many other local programmes produced during this period were based on formulas set by American programmes.

Although the ABC broadcasted many Australian programs, concerns were voiced during this time about the lack of local content on Australian commercial television. In the late 1960s, the government imposed a local content quota in order to protect the Australian television industry being swamped by American products.

Australia’s “Duty”

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At the outbreak of the War in Europe in 1914, Australia was still a very young nation, having been established as a Federation only 13 years earlier in 1901. Australia's regional position meant that it was geographically isolated from the long-standing conflicts between many of the European nations. Despite Australia's not being directly involved with the tensions which brought about the declaration of war, Australians soon found themselves playing an important role in what was thought to be 'the war to end all wars.'

The British Empire

To ensure the protection and security of the British Empire, Britain put aside her previous conflicts of interest with the French and Russian empires and signed agreements. These agreements required the reciprocal support of all parties in the event of an attack from the German Empire or her allies.

Australia, although a Federation since 1901, was still a member of the British Empire. This meant that when Britain declared war on 4 August 1914 not only were the French and Russian empires compelled to join the British, but Australia also found herself at war. The nation's financial resources and manpower were promised by the then-Labor leader, Andrew Fisher, who assured that 'Australians will stand beside our own to help and defend her to our last man and our last shilling.'

The People's Reaction
Although Australia was constitutionally bound to the British Empire, the Australian people themselves reacted to the outbreak of war in an unprecedented manner of enthusiasm. They had a natural, strong sense of patriotism and loyalty to their 'mother country.' With ninety percent of Australians having a British background and with many aspects of life, including law and education, being modelled on the British system, many Australians still perceived themselves as being British and wanted to assist Britain's cause in any way they could.

Australians had such a tremendous amount of pride for their king and country that it was a popular belief among them that the British Empire was superior to other races. This resulted in feelings of animosity towards other nations and increased their desire to take up arms under the British Empire. In particular, a hatred of anything related to Germany became apparent in Australian society. News filtered down to Australian papers through the British and American media which had heightened already outrageous stories to create mass hysteria for the downfall of Germany. Rumours which emerged at the time of World War I included stories of rape and the severing of limbs of Belgians. All these rumours have since been discredited.

The public enthusiastically pledged their allegiance, with thousands of Australian men immediately volunteering to fight for Australia and the British Empire. When taking the statistics into consideration, it is not surprising that volunteers made up the main expeditionary force in the Australian Army in World War I. Initially, Australia's contribution to the war was going to be 20 000 men. With all the excitement surrounding the War, the recruitment offices were overwhelmed with enrolments. By the end of 1914, 50 000 had volunteered. In the beginning when support for the War was still strong because no one was aware of the harsh realities on the battlefield, only the fittest and those without any physical limitations were accepted.

Naïve Views
The reason for such an expeditious response from the Australians was that, along with many other nations, they also naively thought that the War would be over before they had a chance to be a part of it.
Being a young nation, although the colonies had sent some men to fight in the Boer War, they had never been involved as a cooperative in a war before. In fact, the last major European War had ended in 1815 which meant that people all over the world were unfamiliar with the realities of war. This was one of the reasons people were eager to go.

Through the media, popular books and education in schools, war was generally perceived as being quick and effective battles. People at the time thought the War would be over in six weeks when in fact it would take four years. With the advantage of hindsight, we know war is never efficient. The financial cost and the immeasurable price of the loss of human life have a devastating effect on a nation and its people for generations to come.

Opposition to War
Although it was evident that the majority of society was prepared to give its full support to the involvement of Australia in the War, there were also a few groups who were not. Out of fear of derision, among other reasons, these groups usually did not voice their opinions loudly until sometime into the War when doubt was beginning to emerge in society more generally as the real costs of war began to emerge.

Of the groups who did not support the War, there were 'conscientious objectors' who disagreed on going to war on the basis of moral grounds, as well as 'pacifists' who believed it was wrong to kill other people.
Later on in the War a small number of Irish Australians also opposed Australia's commitment to the War. This opposition had little to do with Australia herself and more to do with being against the British mistreatment of rebels in Ireland in 1916.

Some trade unions were opposed to the war in general out of concern that there would be a shortage of workers because they would be killed. The employers, however, would remain to make all of the money. In particular, the Industrial Workers of the World played a significant role in influencing others against the War. They also assisted in influencing political objectors who usually belonged to left-wing movements such as the Australian Labor Party. These two groups, in conjunction with Roman Catholic Church leaders, acted in concert on the issue, especially in the latter years of the War as the reality began to sink into Australian society.

Cinema in Australia in the 1960s

2004-02-25T02:06:00.000-08:00

Prior to World War II, Australia had a small but thriving film industry. After the war, however, the local film industry struggled amid an influx of mostly Hollywood-produced films. Most cinema chains were foreign-owned, and Australian films struggled to reach the screen.

Local film industries are generally considered an important way for people to examine and share their own culture and heritage. Starved of local stories in the late 1960s, many people feared that Australia's cultural identity was at risk.

Very few quality Australian films were produced during the 1960s. While some films were shot in Australia, many were financed by British and American interests and featured foreign stars in the leading roles.

Reasons for American domination at the cinema
American films dominated Australian cinemas during the 1950s and 1960s for a number of reasons.
Firstly, American film-making technology was the most advanced in the world, making it possible for them to produce many more high-quality films at a faster rate than their competitors. Local production companies could not compete with the dazzling technicolour and bright, big-budget promotional campaigns of American film companies.

Secondly, the abundant budgets and superior technological resources attracted the best actors, writers and directors to America. In many cases, this meant that the American creative output was of a higher standard than that of other countries.

Music and radio in the 1960s Australia

2004-02-24T02:07:00.000-08:00

Commercial radio play lists were dominated by mostly imported American and British music throughout the 1960s, quenching the teenage thirst for rock 'n' roll.

The public's taste was changing, though and 1950s rock 'n' roll stars like Elvis Presley made way for the 'British Invasion'. Teenagers were infatuated with British acts like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Kinks and adopted the wild fashions and hairstyles of their idols.

American influence on the 1960's Australian culture

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One of the most significant changes to have taken place in Australian society since the end of WWII, however, has been its drift towards American, rather than British culture. As the American way of life was projected further into Australia via popular culture, it would rapidly alter the ways we spent our money, entertained ourselves, dressed and socialised. Eventually, many of our British cultural legacies would give way to new American ideals.

In the decades since World War II, however, the penetration of American popular culture into Australian society has raised ongoing concerns about Australia's ability to carve out its own national identity. Local cultural products like films and music are an important way for people of a country to explore and share their common culture and heritage. Australian characters, themes and issues, however, are often outweighed by representations of the American way of life.

American films and television programmes depict American people in American settings, and American music deals with American, not Australian concerns. Many people have feared that if Australians are starved of distinctly Australian cultural products, the national identity will be at risk.

Reasons for American cultural dominance in the 1960s

During the 1960s, American cultural influences rapidly filtered into Australia - primarily via music, cinema, and television. There are a number of historical reasons for this.

America emerged from World War II as the dominant global economic power and was well-placed to export its cultural products to the world, including Australia.

At the same time, Australians in the 1960s were well-placed to receive American cultural influences. People were more affluent than ever before and communications and transport technology was advancing rapidly, enabling an easier transmission of American products and ideas into Australian society. American concepts like consumerism and material aspirations also fitted well with Australia's new pleasure-seeking suburban ideals.

1960s British influence on the Australian culture

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British settlers arrived in Australia in 1788 and the extent of the British influence is still evident today. The British Union Jack features predominantly on our national flag and the Queen is Australia's Head of State. British models also form the basis of Australia's legal and political systems, as well providing our national language.

Up until World War II, Britain remained the dominating cultural influence in Australia. Britons also dominated the make-up of Australian society - most of Australia's citizens were either born in Britain, or had British descendants. In the years following the war, British subjects were encouraged to migrate to Australia under an 'assisted package' scheme, which helped with the cost of migrating to Australia and provided housing and employment options upon arrival. Between 1945 and 1972, over one million British migrants settled in Australia.

Before 1945, many people, including Australians themselves, considered Australia to be nothing more than a British colony; a nation whose national identity was relatively indistinct from the British. During this period of Australia's history, our modes of entertainment, food, fashion, sporting culture and our social values and attitudes were largely dictated by British culture.

Australian Politics in the 1960s

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Robert Menzies served as Australia's Prime Minister throughout the 1960s, until his retirement in January 1966. He was replaced by Harold Holt, who faced the challenge of defending Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War.

On 17 December 1967, Holt went swimming at Cheviot Beach in Victoria. He was never seen again and two days later was officially presumed dead. His remains have never been found.

After Holt's disappearance, John Gorton was elected as the new Prime Minister. In 1968, in the face of mounting opposition to the war, Gorton announced that no more Australian troops would be sent to Vietnam.

1960s in Australian context

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The 1960s were a decade of political and social upheaval in Australia. Young people challenged the traditional values of their parent's generation and actively opposed the decisions of the government. Women demanded equal rights and others called for racial equality and a new consideration for the environment. Many more demonstrated against the Vietnam War, conscription and the nuclear industry.

Many of these protests were part of wider social movements taking place in other Western countries. Advances in communications technology meant that revolutionary ideas and voices of dissent could rapidly be transmitted and received around the world.

Australia's population increased throughout the decade, as European and British migrants continued to arrive. The late 1960s also saw changes to the White Australia Policy, which permitted a small number of skilled Asian migrants to settle in Australia.

Women's rights and the Pill in the 1960s
In the late 1960s, many Australian women began to question the restrictive roles that society had assigned to them. Many women felt that there was more to life than raising children and taking care of the home. Others were dissatisfied at being confined to traditionally 'female' occupations like teaching, administration and secretarial work.

Women marched, protested and pressured governments in a bid to gain equal rights in all spheres of life including the workplace, education, politics and sport.

The contraceptive, or birth control pill was introduced in Australia in the 1960s. It had a significant impact on society, granting women greater sexual freedom and allowing them to control when and if they had children. The Pill also sparked much moral debate during the 1960s about pre-marital sex and promiscuity.

Indigenous rights in the 1960s
In a 1967 referendum, Australians voted overwhelmingly to recognise Indigenous peoples as citizens and allow them to be counted as part of the Australian population. This result followed a long campaign by both Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians, who demanded better rights for Indigenous people and highlighted the poor conditions in which many lived.

The 60s hippie revolution
Throughout the 1960s, many young people became disillusioned by what they perceived to be the shallowness and materialism of contemporary society. Towards the end of the decade, many adopted an alternative 'hippie' lifestyle. Among other elements, the hippie movement included a rebellious style of dress, a reverence for nature, Eastern spiritual philosophy and experimentation with drugs like marijuana and LSD.

These radical changes in society were reflected in the new fashions, hairstyles and styles of music that emerged throughout the decade. While rock 'n' roll retained its popularity, the rise of hippie culture permeated mainstream fashion and music.

The Vietnam War
War broke out between communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam in 1959. America and her allies, including Australia, sent thousands of troops to Vietnam in an effort to stop the spread of Communism. In total, around 50 000 Australians served in the conflict between 1965 and 1972. Many of them were conscripted, which means their military service was compulsory.

Australians became divided over the issue of conscription and whether or not Australia should be involved in the war. Towards the end of the decade, thousands of people demonstrated against the government and some protests became violent.

Music in Australia in the 1960s

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The rock 'n' roll craze of the 1950s and 60s was changing the way young people entertained themselves. Teenagers clad in the latest fashions would gather in dance halls, or discos, and perform dance fads like the stomp and the boogaloo. The twist, named after the popular Chubby Checker song, was especially popular. It was the first major dance style that did not require a partner, so anyone could try it.

Some of the world's biggest bands toured Australia in the 1960s, including the Beach Boys, the Rolling Stones and in 1964, the Beatles. Australia was gripped by Beatle-mania as thousands of hysterical, screaming fans mobbed John, George, Paul and Ringo wherever they went.

Australian music charts in the 1960s were dominated by American and British music, and local acts were strongly influenced by overseas trends. Some Australian musicians enjoyed international success. Folk outfit the Seekers were extremely popular in America and Britain, becoming the first Australian group to sell over a million records.

In 1964, Jimmy Little became the first Indigenous Australian to achieve chart success, with his song Roya lTelephone.

By the late 1960s, the American psychedelic and acid rock movements had filtered into Australia. This music was prompted by, among other factors, Vietnam War protests and the new drug and counter-culture scene. Lyrics from this music style spoke of peace, love, freedom, social protest and civil rights - the social revolution had arrived.

Radio in Australia in the 1960s

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Australian radio in the 1960s generally followed the format set by radio broadcasters overseas, particularly in the area of news broadcasting and music programming.

Commercial radio was increasingly tailoring its programming to the youth market, filling the airwaves with upbeat, mostly imported music that was popular in the charts.

Whilst popular, the overseas radio models were creating dissatisfaction amongst many minority groups in the late 1960s, who firmly believed that the current programming models did not reflect their needs. Ethnic communities, students, activists, classical music lovers may have had little in common, but in the late 1960s they were all pushing for more access to the airwaves.

Cinema and theatre in the 1960s in Australia

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While television was still proving to be a major blow to cinema attendance in the early 1960s, cinemas regained some strength in the following years. In 1965 there were around 1000 cinemas in Australia, screening mostly American and British films.

Cinema in the 1960s reflected the youth-driven culture of the time, catering less to the taste of families and more to the teenage 'baby boomer' crowd. Movies like Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid (1969) and Easy Rider (1969) reflected the fashion, music and changing social values of the decade.

Locally-made Australian films were in short supply throughout the 1960s and the period is widely considered to be a low point in Australian film-making. A boost in government funding at the end of the decade, however, would see an improvement throughout the 1970s.

Ballet, opera and theatre became more popular in the 1960s, although they still remained a minor form of entertainment. In 1969, the musical Hair opened in Australia. Featuring nudity, drug references and 'hippy' themes, its success signified a perceptible shift in the nation's conservative social values.

Television and Satellite in Australia in the 1960s

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As television technology developed throughout the 1960s, the medium continued its domination as the entertainment form of choice for most Australians. By 1965, it was estimated that 9 out of 10 Australian families owned a TV set.

Programs imported from overseas enjoyed massive popularity; in particular the American comedies I Love Lucy and Leave it to Beaver and the British soap Coronation Street. Locally-produced content, however, was also receiving an enthusiastic response. Hit music shows like Bandstand and Six O'Clock Rock proved popular with teenagers, while young children were tuning in to Play School and Mr Squiggle.

Adults were also well-catered for. In 1961, the ABC premiered the current affairs programme Four Corners, which is still running today. Homicide, the first Australian-produced drama series, debuted in 1964, as did The Mavis Bramston Show, a satirical sketch comedy. Both attracted a huge following.

Programs like The Mavis Bramston Show and Homicide were crucial turning points in Australian television history. Their success proved that local audiences wanted to see Australian-made programmes, featuring local actors and Australian humour, themes and concerns. Through television, a unique Australian identity was slowly emerging.

Television and satellite technology
In the late 1960s, Australian television was connected to the international satellite system. Programs could be broadcast live between capital cities and people in remote parts of the country could receive television broadcasts. Along with the rest of the world, Australians could now be involved in globally-significant televised events, like the first moon landing in 1969.

Women and sport in Australia in the 1960s

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The study of sport can yield valuable information on the status and roles of particular groups in society as a whole. Traditionally, groups such as Indigenous peoples, ethnic minorities and women have been discriminated against, or treated unequally in relation to sports participation. This treatment is thought to reflect the prevailing cultural attitudes towards these groups.

In the past, social traditions and a dominant masculine culture had confined women to 'refined' sports like croquet and tennis. Even when they did play sport, women's results were often reported in the social pages of newspapers rather than in news sections and women themselves considered their participation to be a recreational pursuit rather than a serious, competitive one.

In the 1960s, however, women demanded equal status to men in many areas of social, political and cultural life. This included the sporting sphere, where some women challenged society's expectations by taking up sports like horse racing, football, long-distance running, and even weight lifting.

While women were gradually accepted into almost all kinds of sport, history has shown that they would continue to struggle to achieve true sporting equality with men, particularly in the areas of funding and media coverage.

According to some critics, this discrimination and marginalisation of certain groups within sport goes against fundamental Australian values like 'egalitarianism', or equality for all.

Australia at Olympic Games during the 1960s

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Australia won 22 medals at the Rome Olympics in 1960. Compared with the 35-medal haul in Melbourne, some Australians were disappointed with this result. In 1964, Australia brought home 18 medals from the Tokyo Olympics and just 17 from the 1968 Olympics in Mexico. By the end of the decade, experts claimed that Australia's international sporting dominance was waning.

Many reasons were put forward to explain this decline. Australia's geographic isolation had always made international competition difficult and expensive and forced Australian athletes to compete during their off-season.

The biggest problem, however, was that Australian sport remained relatively amateur and unstructured compared with the rigorous, professional sporting systems that were emerging in Europe and America. In the 1960s, it was becoming clear that talent was no longer enough - if it were to retain its international sporting dominance, Australia would require a government-funded national sports system. The full realisation of this would be seen in the coming decade.

Australian Rules football in the 1960s

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In the 1960s, Australian Rules football was State-based and did not have a national competition. The strongest and most popular State competition was the Victorian Football League (VFL).

Television began to have a major impact on Australian Rules football in the 1960s. Sporting coverage on television attracted large audiences and some football players achieved widespread celebrity status. Increased gate attendance and club memberships meant that clubs could now pay their players. Football became a professional, rather than an amateur sport and Australian Rules players and coaches were enticed to other clubs by generous salaries - much to the consternation of die-hard fans.

As well as traditional gate takings, both rugby league and union attracted money through sponsorship, television rights and licensed clubs throughout the 1960s, though the amounts were extremely modest compared to today's standards. Rugby league administrators tentatively agreed to the televising of matches, although they were concerned that it would lead to a drop in gate attendance. In the coming years, however, television would prove to be a multi-million dollar cash boon for many sports.

Tennis in Australia in the 1960s

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Tennis players like Lew Hoad, Ken Rosewall, Neale Fraser and Rod Laver ensured that Australia remained the dominant tennis nation of the 1960s. Throughout the decade, Australia won the Davis Cup seven times and took home the Wimbledon men's singles title eight times.

Margaret Smith Court, one of Australia's most successful women's tennis players, emerged onto the international scene in 1960. Over the next 15 years, she would go on to win 62 singles and doubles Grand Slam titles.

Sport in Australian culture 1960's

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Australia is often considered to be a 'sports mad' country. Our love of sport is reflected in the number of people who play sport, attend sporting events and view sport on television. Australia leads the world in sports science and in the technical development of television sporting coverage.

Sport and our national identity
For a nation with a relatively small population, Australia performs remarkably well at an international level. Sporting success, particularly on the world stage, enables the creation of a distinct national identity. Victorious sports people often become national heroes and some, like legendary cricketer Donald Bradman, become revered as Australian icons.

The popularity of sport in Australia can partly be attributed to a warm climate that encourages people to get outdoors and be active. Sport also enables well-loved national values like 'mateship', 'having a go', and 'egalitarianism' (the assumption that that all people are equal), to be played out. Australians also revel in the expression of 'fair play' on the sporting field - hence, sports cheats are often chastised for being 'un-Australian.'

Sport as a reflection of social change

A close examination of sport can yield other important discoveries about changes in our culture over time. As Australian society became more commercialised and globalised, so too did our sport. From an amateur, locally-based pastime, sport in Australia gradually evolved into a professional, highly lucrative industry with international scope.

The development of sport in Australia also reflects the gradual movement of our culture away from its British roots, towards a more Americanised, yet distinctly Australian cultural hybrid. While sports like cricket and the various codes of rugby point to our British heritage, modern sports like basketball demonstrate the penetration of American influence into our culture. At the same time, local sports like Australian Rules football continue to thrive.

Sport in the 1960s
Australia excelled in international sport throughout most of the 1960s, and local participation rates were high. Tennis and football turned professional, and television changed the way Australians watched sport. Women asserted their right to compete in previously male-dominated sports, although they still struggled to achieve true sporting equality.

Towards the end of the decade, however, some people believed that Australia's sporting performances had suffered a decline. Many experts feared that Australia would soon be overtaken by the professional, structured sporting systems being established in other countries.

Globalisation, Americanisation and Australian culture

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American influence had pervaded almost all areas of Australian cultural life in the 1990s. This process, however, was not unique to this country. It was part of the broader process of globalisation, whereby the cultural, political, economic and social spheres of individual countries were becoming increasingly mixed and interdependent. This process was largely driven by communications technology such as the internet.
America was influential in many fields, particularly that of economics and the diffusion of cultural products, so the process of globalisation was often considered a process of Americanisation.

Globalisation of culture - good or bad?
Debate rages over whether or not this interdependence of cultures and the pervasion of foreign, mostly American influences, will have a positive or negative effect on Australian society.

Globalisation's critics believe that it promotes a bland, homogenous global culture, dictated by American consumerist ideals. It is feared that the world will end up wearing the same clothes, eating the same foods, listening to the same music and watching the same TV shows.

Opponents to globalisation also foresee serious social and cultural consequences. Australians may find, for example, that it is increasingly difficult to form a collective identity or sense of community. Our long-held traditions, social values and unique way of life may also be at risk.

Champions of globalisation, however, believe that it will lead to a breakdown of cultural barriers like religion, language and economic status and will help foster a greater understanding of cultural differences.

Looking to the future
Whether or not Australia can continue to carve out a distinct national identity in the face of Americanisation remains to be seen. Australians, however, continue to enjoy seeing their own stories represented on television, in film and in music despite the saturation of American products. Furthermore, many people believe that throughout its history, Australian society has continually absorbed a range of foreign cultural influences and transformed them into a distinctly Australian culture.

The quest for an Australian identity in the 1970s

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While the British and American influence has played a major role in defining the shape of Australia that we know today, a number of other influences have contributed to the development of the Australian identity.

As settlers in an unfamiliar land, the Australian identity was long bound to the stereotype of the tough, heroic bushman who fought to tame a difficult landscape. Australian values like 'mateship', 'fair go' and the 'Aussie battler' emerged as a result of this myth. Throughout the prosperous post-war years, however, a new Australian ideal emerged. Australians were thought to be part of a more laidback culture that enjoyed the 'good life'.

As migrants moved into Australia over the decades, they introduced new stories, traditions and perspectives to Australian culture. The traditional concepts of an Australia as a white British colony, or a land of struggling bush-dwellers, no longer seemed to fit with the diverse new reality of society. As Aboriginal people were finally acknowledged as the original owners of the land, the role of Indigenous values in the construction of a true Australian identity had also become apparent.

Australian society has absorbed many cultural influences across the decades - not just British and American, but Indigenous, Asian, European and many more. As such, the Indigenous and migrant influence has intervened in the American and British effect on Australian culture.

In the face of globalisation, however, the future of Australia's unique national identity was increasingly challenged by the development of a global culture.

Sport and the American influence in the 1970s

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From the 1970s, American culture was changing the nature of Australian sport. This was accelerated by advances in communications technology, which enabled more widespread, frequent and up-to-date broadcasts of American sport into Australian homes.

From the 1970s, the American influence also changed the way sport was presented. Many Australian sporting matches began to feature American-style glitz and glamour, such as football games where players and the crowd were boosted by cheerleaders and mascots. The World Series Cricket tournament, developed in the late 1970s, was inspired by American baseball. It featured brightly-clad players, night games and shorter match times - all designed to appeal to a modern television audience.

Food and shopping in the 1970s Australia

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American fast food chains rapidly extended their reach across Australia during the 1970s. In 1971, McDonald's opened their first restaurant in Australia and by the end of the decade there were 105 stores throughout the country.

These food outlets offered fast, affordable food that could be consumed in-store or at home. This convenience, combined with greater numbers of stores and aggressive promotional campaigns, meant that fast food quickly became an established part of the diets of many Australians.

Throughout the 1970s, the trend towards American-style foods was echoed in the supermarket sector. Many new kinds of snacks and drinks were offered and the range of existing foods, like breakfast cereal and confectionery, was expanded to include new American products. The range of American-style pre-packaged and frozen foods also increased as part of a general trend towards convenient, time-saving foods.
Impact of changing food habits

The influence of America on food consumption in Australia has had significant social and economic repercussions.

The supermarket explosion, for example, meant that consumers could save money and satisfy all of their shopping needs in one place. On the other hand, smaller vendors like butchers, bakers and greengrocers were unable to compete with the convenience and low prices offered by large supermarkets and were forced to close.

As well as changing the kinds of foods Australians consumed, the trend towards American convenience foods also affected the amount of time people spent preparing food. During the 1940s, it was estimated that Australians spent around six hours per day purchasing and preparing food. By the 1970s, this had dropped to two hours.

Resurgence of Australian television in the 1970s

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Television plays a significant role in forming the culture, beliefs and values of a nation, and the overwhelming dominance of American content on Australian television was becoming a great concern to many.

In the face of increasing public opposition, Australian television stations began to give local programmes a greater platform throughout the 1970s. Many programs, such as Homicide and Kingswood Country, held their own against foreign programmes and were consistently listed in the nation's top ten most-watched shows.

British and American influence in the 1970s

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Australian society in the 1970s was a fusion of many cultural flavours - European, Asian, Indigenous Australian and British to name a few. From the 1970s onwards, however, the pervading influence of American popular culture would shift Australia further away from its traditional British ties, towards a more Americanised society.

A new national anthem

In 1977, Advance Australia Fair became the Australian national anthem. It replaced the previous official anthem God Save the Queen.

A 1977 national poll found that 43 percent of Australians preferred Advance Australia Fair as the national anthem, while just 19 percent chose God Save the Queen. This reflected a marked shift in public attitude - Australia's nostalgic bonds to Britain were rapidly dissolving.

Music and radio in the 1970s

The influence of foreign acts on the Australian music charts carried over from the rock 'n' roll era into the following decades. Popular American acts of the decade include folk rock artists Bob Dylan and Joni Mitchell and disco acts like Donna Summers and the Jackson 5. British acts like the Rolling Stones and T-Rex and European groups like ABBA also enjoyed huge success in Australia.

In 1973, the government introduced a code of practices to prevent the Australian music industry from being swamped by foreign products. It set down a minimum requirement for the amount of Australian music to be broadcast on radio. The resulting increase of local music on radio play lists saw acts like John Paul Young, AC/DC and Olivia Newton-John achieve chart success.

At the close of the decade, however, the industry remained dominated by foreign, mostly American, music.

Cinema in the 1970s
In the face of stiff competition from foreign, mostly American, products, very few films shown in cinemas during the 1950s and 1960s were Australian. In the 1970s, amidst fears that Australia would soon lose its national cultural identity, the Australian Government helped kick-start the Australian film industry by actively supporting local film and television producers.

Between 1970 and 1985, around 400 films were made in Australia. Even at the height of the Australian film resurgence, however, local cinemas continued to be dominated by American films like Jaws (1975), Star Wars (1977) and Rocky (1978).

American programmes like The Brady Bunch and Happy Days enjoyed widespread popularity in Australia during the 1970s. British programmes like Fawlty Towers and Dr Who were also popular.
The overwhelming dominance of foreign, mostly American, programmes on Australian television was, however, facing mounting public opposition in the early 1970s.

Reasons for American dominance of Australian television
Since the advent of television, America had been able to produce television programmes much more cheaply than they could be produced in Australia. This was largely due to America's large population, strong economy and huge entertainment industry.

American television companies could then afford to sell these programmes to Australian TV networks at an extremely low price. This discouraged the production of much more expensive locally-made television programmes and led to a flooding of the domestic market by less expensive, imported content.

American influence on the Australian culture

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1970s British influence on the Australian culture

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White British settlers arrived in Australia in 1788 and the extent of the British influence is still evident today. The British Union Jack features predominantly on our national flag, and the Queen is Australia's Head of State. British models also form the basis of Australia's legal and political systems, as well providing our national language.

Up until World War II, Britain remained the dominating cultural influence in Australia. Britons also dominated the make-up of Australian society - most of Australia's citizens were either born in Britain, or had British descendants. In the years following the war, British subjects were encouraged to migrate to Australia under an 'assisted package' scheme, which helped with the cost of migrating to Australia and provided housing and employment options upon arrival. Between 1945 and 1972, over one million British migrants settled in Australia.

Before 1945, many people, including Australians themselves, considered Australia to be nothing more than a white British colony; a nation whose national identity was relatively indistinct from the British. During this period of Australia's history, our modes of entertainment, food, fashion, sporting culture and our social values and attitudes were largely dictated by British culture.

The 1970s in Australian Context

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The social upheaval and political drama of the 1960s continued throughout the 1970s. In many cases, these protests were part of wider social and political movements taking place in other Western countries.

Australian perspectives on immigration, war, sexual morality, the role of women and the environment were undergoing radical change. In 1974, the White Australia Policy was scrapped. Throughout the decade, women won the right to equal pay and maternity leave and Indigenous peoples made progress on land rights. In 1972, Australian troops were withdrawn from Vietnam and in 1975, the nation was rocked by the dismissal of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam.

1972 - Withdrawal from Vietnam
War had been raging between communist North Vietnam and democratic South Vietnam since 1959. Australian troops had been sent to serve alongside American forces in 1965, in an effort to help stop the spread of communism. Many of these troops were conscripted, which meant their military service was compulsory.

Opposition to the Vietnam War was high in the early 1970s. Many Australians began to doubt that the war would ever be won and strongly opposed the government's policy of conscription, or compulsory military service. On 8 May 1970, over 200 000 people around Australia gathered in cities to demonstrate against Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War.

Australian soldiers were withdrawn from Vietnam in 1972. In total, around 50 000 Australians had served in the conflict. Around 3000 were wounded and almost 500 were killed.

1972 - 1975: The Whitlam era
In 1972, Gough Whitlam's Labor government came to power. His range of radical reforms appealed to the millions of baby boomers who had grown tired of 23 years of conservative Liberal rule.

Gough Whitlam installed major changes across the fields of health, education, immigration, Indigenous rights, foreign affairs and industrial relations. He withdrew all Australian troops from Vietnam, abolished the White Australia Policy and increased funding for the arts. Whitlam also introduced free university education and lowered the national voting age from 21 to 18, giving Australia's youth a greater influence on the way their country was governed.

Despite his successful reforms, Gough Whitlam faced increasing opposition. Many people believed that he had mishandled the economy and was responsible for high levels of inflation and unemployment. The Whitlam government was also involved in a series of damaging scandals, including the Overseas Loans affair, in which the government was accused of attempts to fund its plans by illegally borrowing money from Middle Eastern countries.

In 1975, Prime Gough Minister Whitlam was dismissed by John Kerr, the Governor-General. The Governor-General is the Queen's representative in Australia. Many Australians had not realised that a British Head of State had the power to dismiss an Australian Prime Minister. The dismissal sparked widespread public outrage and became one of the most controversial events in Australian political history.

Malcolm Fraser comes to power
Following Whitlam's dismissal, an election saw Malcolm Fraser's Liberal National Party coalition sweep into power. Fraser served as Prime Minister until 1983. He campaigned to abolish apartheid in South Africa and was a strong supporter of Indigenous rights. Fraser also allowed more refugees and people from Asia to migrate to Australia and supported multiculturalism.

Indigenous rights in the 1970s
large proportion of Indigenous people lived in poor conditions throughout the 1970s. Indigenous rights campaigners did, however, make some major gains in their land rights struggle. In 1976, the Aboriginal Land Rights Act was established. It was a law which recognised that in some circumstances, Aboriginal people had a right to claim control of land.

In 1971, Indigenous people were counted in the national population for the first time. The census found that there were 115 953 Indigenous people living in Australia. In 1976, this number had risen to 160 915.

Several Aboriginal people reached political prominence in the 1970s. Neville Bonner, for example, became the first Aboriginal Australian to be elected to federal parliament.

The quest for an Australian identity

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While the British and American influence has played a major role in defining the shape of Australia that we know today, a number of other influences have contributed to the development of the Australian identity.
As settlers in an unfamiliar land, the Australian identity was long bound to the stereotype of the tough, heroic bushman who fought to tame a difficult landscape. Australian values like 'mateship', 'fair go' and the 'Aussie battler' emerged as a result of this myth. Throughout the prosperous post-war years, however, a new Australian ideal emerged and Australians were thought to be part of a more laidback culture that enjoyed the 'good life'.

As migrants moved to Australia over the decades, however, they introduced new stories, traditions and perspectives to Australian culture. The traditional concepts of an Australia as a British colony, or a land of struggling bush-dwellers, no longer seemed to fit with the diverse new reality of the society. As Indigenous peoples were finally acknowledged as the original owners of the land, the role of Indigenous values in the construction of a true Australian identity had also become apparent.

As such, the Indigenous and migrant influence has intervened in the American and British effect on Australian culture.

As Australian society adapted to changing cultural influences across the decades, whether they be British, American, Indigenous, Asian or European, the national identity continually evolved in response. In the face of globalisation, however, the future of Australia's unique national identity was increasingly challenged by the development of a global culture

Food and shopping in 1950's Australia

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Throughout the 1950s, traditional British meals, like roast dinners, chops or sausages and vegetables, were the typical dinner for most Australians. Breakfast usually consisted of porridge, toast, eggs, or simple cereals like cornflakes.

Food was usually purchased from specialist vendors - bread from a baker, vegetables from a greengrocer, meat from a butcher and other staple items like sugar and flour from a local corner store.

Towards the late 1950s, new American-inspired shopping centres and supermarkets began springing up, particularly in the newly-built suburbs. These contained a number of shopping facilities under one roof and markedly changed Australian shopping habits.

American and British influence on Australian television in the 1950s

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The American television industry had been established in the 1940s. During the post-war reconstruction period, the Americans quickly returned to the airwaves and began producing a myriad of television exports.

Between 1956 and 1963, almost all content screened on Australian television was sourced from overseas. Of this, 83 percent was American, with the rest from Britain. Many local programmes produced during this period were also based on formulas set by American programmes and were not distinctively Australian.
In 1959, the ten most popular programmes on Australian commercial television were all American. These included shows like Perry Mason, The Flintstones and I Love Lucy.

British programmes dominated schedules on the ABC throughout the 1950s. The ABC modelled itself on the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Britain's public broadcaster and aimed to provide programmes that enriched the culture of the nation and remained free from commercial interests.

The dominance of American content on Australian television in the 1950s meant that the representation of Australian characters and issues was far outweighed by representations of the American way of life. Most programmes depicted American families in American settings and dealt with American concerns and themes. While some television stations, like the ABC, made concerted attempts to broadcast Australian programmes, concerns were voiced during this time about the lack of local content on Australian commercial television.

In the late 1960s, the government would impose a local content quota in order to protect the Australian television industry from being swamped by American products.

America in Australia pre - 1945

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America's presence had been felt in Australia prior to WWII. As well as political ties between the two countries, America and Australia were strong trade partners. In 1928, it was estimated that Australia sourced almost 25 percent of its imports from America. Before the war, Australians also enjoyed American cultural imports like films and music.

Throughout World War II, Australia became increasingly dependent on the United States, rather than Britain, for military support. By the end of the war, links between America and Australia were strong and somewhat undermined the traditional ties that Australia had to Britain. Thousands of American troops were stationed in Australia during WWII.

American-style dance halls were established, playing new music and serving American-style food. The American troops wore flashy uniforms and purchased fancy items with their generous incomes. While some people were critical of their brash behaviour, many Australians found the experience of American troops exciting. Their dynamic new ideas and attitudes posed a challenge to the prevailing conservative British sensibilities.

America emerged from World War II as the dominant global economic power and was well-placed to export its cultural products to the world, including Australia.

At the same time, Australians in the 1950s were well-placed to receive American cultural influences. People were more affluent than ever before and communications and transport technology was advancing rapidly, enabling an easier transmission of American products and ideas into Australian society. American concepts like consumerism and material aspirations also fitted well with Australia's new pleasure-seeking suburban ideals.

These factors enabled American cultural influences to filter rapidly into Australia in the post-war years - primarily via music, cinema, and television. Over the subsequent decades, America would become a dominating cultural influence in Australia.

Music and radio
Australian popular music during the 1950s drew heavily from American sources, as both British and Australian youth fell under the spell of American-style rock 'n' roll. In 1955, American Bill Haley's hit song Rock Around the Clock swept Australia, and the airwaves were soon full of other American acts like Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly.

During this time, Australian performers like Johnny O'Keefe were heavily influenced by these overseas trends, modelling themselves on successful international acts.
Large American corporations had developed mass production and marketing plans to tap into the newly-formed teenage market and harness this worldwide craze. They were helped along by technological leaps in radio and television, which made it possible for American music to penetrate foreign cultures like never before.

Following the introduction of television in 1956, radio stations increasingly relied on the new 'teenage' thirst for American music. Commercial radio was increasingly aligning its programming with the American youth model, and play lists were still dominated by mostly imported American and British popular music.

Radio announcers in the 1950s often used American accents to make their products appear exciting and modern - a clear reflection of the esteem with which American culture was held at the time.

Australian teenagers rapidly adopted entertainment technology like car and transistor radios, following the lead set by their American counterparts.

Cinema
Prior to World War II, Australia had a small but thriving film industry. After the war, however, the local film industry struggled amid an influx of mostly Hollywood-produced films. Most cinema chains were foreign-owned and Australian films struggled to reach the screen.

Very few quality Australian films were produced during the 1950s. While some films were shot in Australia, many were financed by British and American interests and featured foreign stars in the leading roles.

It has been estimated that in 1952, almost 75 percent of the films screened in Australian cinemas were American, while 18 percent were British.

Australia's widespread exposure to the American way of life depicted in 1950s movies coincided with the rock 'n' roll explosion and a spin-off into the teenage fashion industry. Australian youth imitated the fashions and hairstyles of their favourite American movie stars like Marlon Brando and James Dean.

Reasons for American domination at the cinema
American film-making technology was the most advanced in the world, making it possible for them to produce many more high-quality films at a faster rate than their competitors. Local production companies could not compete with the dazzling technicolour and bright, big-budget promotional campaigns of American film companies.

The abundant budgets and superior technological resources also attracted the best actors, writers and directors to America. In many cases, this meant that the American creative output was of a higher standard than that of other countries.

American influence on the Australian culture

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1950s British influence on the Australian culture

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British settlers arrived in Australia in 1788 and the extent of the British influence is still evident today. The British Union Jack features predominantly on our national flag and the Queen is Australia's Head of State. British models also form the basis of Australia's legal and political systems, as well providing our national language.

Up until World War II, Britain remained the dominating cultural influence in Australia. Britons also dominated the make-up of Australian society - most of Australia's citizens were either born in Britain, or had British descendants. In the years following the war, British subjects were encouraged to migrate to Australia under an 'assisted package' scheme, which helped with the cost of migrating to Australia and provided housing and employment options upon arrival.

Between 1945 and 1972, over one million British migrants settled in Australia.

Before 1945, many people, including Australians themselves, considered Australia to be nothing more than a British colony; a nation whose national identity was relatively indistinct from the British. During this period of Australia's history, our modes of entertainment, food, fashion, sporting culture and our social values and attitudes were largely dictated by British culture.

Australian Politics in the 1950s

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Despite the optimism of the decade, Australians lived in the shadow of the Cold War. The Cold War was a bitter political struggle that had emerged after World War II, between America and her Western allies and Communist countries like the Soviet Union and China. As tension mounted between nations, many people feared the outbreak of nuclear war.

Throughout the decade, Australia was led by Liberal leader Sir Robert Menzies. He came to power on 10 December 1949 and would go on to become Australia's longest serving Prime Minister.

Along with many other Australians, Menzies believed that Australia was seriously under threat from Communist regimes. In 1950, he sent Australian soldiers to fight Communist North Korea after it invaded South Korea.

Robert Menzies was renowned for his public speaking prowess. He was also known as a staunch monarchist and once famously called himself 'British to his bootstraps'. Nonetheless, he actively maintained Australia's military alliance with America after World War II